THE 


HORSEOWNER  AND  STABLEMAN'S 
COMPANION 


OR 


HINTS  ON  THE  SELECTION,  PURCHASE,  AND  GENERAL 
MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  HORSE 


BY 
GEORGE   ARMATAGE,  M.R.C.V.S. 

EDITOB  OP   "  CLATES'S  EVEBY  MAX   HIS   OWN   CATTLE  DOCTOB." 


LONDON : 
FREDERICK    WARNE    AND     CO. 

BEDFORD  STREET,  STRAND. 


BALLANTYNE    AND    HANSON,    EDINBURGH 
CHAN DOS    STREET;   LONDON 


f\7 

CONTENTS. 


PAGB 

PEEFACB ,     ....     ,.     ix 


PART  I. 
MISMANAGEMENT. 


DEVELOPMENT  AND  MAINTENANCE: 

Immediate  Object  of  Food — Development — Main- 
tenance— Waste  or  Decay — Importance  of  Good 
Food  for  Young  Animals — Evils  of  an  Insuffi- 
ciency    8 

ORGANS  or  DIGESTION: 

Enumeration — Prehension — Incisor  Teeth — Tongue 
— Cheeks — Molars  or  Grinders — Pharynx — 
Gullet— Deglutition 14 

IN  SALIVATION  : 

Saliva  —  Salivary  Glands  —  Solvent  Action  — 
Chemical  Action — Quantity  of  Saliva — Uses  and 
Importance  of  Saliva 16 

STOMACH  : 

Peculiarities  in  the  Horse,  Ox,  and  Man — Broken 
Wind,  and  Chronic  Cough — Rapid  Digestion  in 
the  Horse  —  Small  Stomach  —  Necessity  for 
Regular  Feeding 20 


vi  Contents. 


PART  III. 

SELECTION  AND  PUECHASE  OF  HOBSES: 

Tricks  and  Frauds  of  Dealers — Bribery — Warranty — 
Certificates  of  Soundness — Recommending  Horses — 
Precautions  to  be  observed Ill 

STABLE  MANAGEMENT: 

Early  Operations  in  the  Stable — Watering — Purity  of 
Water — Cleanliness — Disinfectants — Lighting  of 
Stables — Ventilation — Various  Plans — Heat  or 
Temperature  of  the  Stable — Grooming  or  Dressing 
— Stable  Tools — Washing  the  Legs — Bandages — 
Clothing — Bedding — Disposal  of  Manure — Clipping 
and  Singeing 128 

FEEDING  : 

Oats — Beans— Barley — Tares  or  Lentils — Hay — Straw 
— Bran — Linseed — Linseed  or  Oil -cake — Maize  or 
Indian  Corn — Locust  or  Carob  Bean — Condiments 
— Vegetable  Food — Turning  to  Grass — Regularity 
of  Feeding — Feeding  after  Work 156 

EXEBCISE 181 

CONDITION 185 

THE    TUKKISH    OB    ROMAN    BATH,   AND    WASHING 
HOBSES  AFTEB  HUNTING 189 

GENEBAL  ABBANGEMENT  OF  STABLES: 

Ordinary  Arrangement  Defective — Improvement  on 
the  Plan  — Paving  of  Stable  Floors— Drains— De- 
clivity of  Stable  Floors— Wooden  Floors— Their 
Economy — Loose  Boxes 194 


Contents.  vii 


THE  CAUSES  OF  DISEASE  AND  ITS  PEEVENTION: 

Prevention  Better  than  Cure 203 

SIMPLE  RULES  FOR  SHOEING,  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF 
THE  FEET  OF  HOESES: 

The  Hoof— Wall— Sole  and  Frog— Nails— Shoes— 
Their  Shape — Bar  Shoes — Leather  Soles — Stopping 
for  Feet — Foot  Ointments — Cutting  and  Brushing 
— Groggy  Feet — Sidebones — Pumiced  Feet — Pricks 
and  Binds — Shoeing  in  Coal  Mines 208 

POULTICES  AND  FOMENTATIONS 222 

SENDING  FOB  THE  VETEEINAEY  SUEGEON  ....  224 


PEEFACE. 


IT  has  been  said,  "  What  England  is,  she  has  been 
made  by  the  thinking  and  working  of  many 
generations/'  and  the  remark  has  an  application 
quite  as  special  to  the  British  stockowner  as  to 
the  merchant  prince. 

By  the  concentration  of  talent  and  English 
perseverance  the  stock  of  Great  Britain  has  been 
raised  to  a  standard  of  unparalleled  excellence. 
Throughout  the  operations  of  agriculture  have 
kept  this  end  prominently  in  view,  and  with  un- 
paralleled excellence  has  been  also  derived  a 
proportionate  collateral  value.  Both  are  qualities 
which  call  for  regard,  and  forcibly  point  out 
the  necessity  for  an  orthodox  system  of  preser- 
vation. But  neither — successful  as  they  have 
become — are  the  result  of  outside  assistance, 
which,  as  in  other  countries,  the  agriculturist 
and  horseowner  can  obtain  on  the  most  approved 
and  easy  principles.  They  are  due  to  the  patient 
working  and  deep  intelligence  which  forms  one 
of  the  innate  portions  of  English  character. 


x  Preface. 

All  the  advice  and  assistance  which  veterinary 
science  has  almost  up  to  the  present  time  fur- 
nished to  the  stockowner  in  the  works  to  which 
he  has  had  access,  have  been  far  below  the  re- 
quirements of  the  age,  and  shrouded  beneath 
faulty  detail  and  even  positive  error,  the  result 
of  young  and  recent  observation.  Much  incon- 
venience, mischief,  and  vexation  have  been  caused 
by  exclusive  attention  to  effects,  while  the  causes 
have  been  altogether  overlooked.  The  greater 
part  of  the  mortality  among  live  stock  is  preven- 
table, and,  to  demonstrate  that,  it  is  required  that 
the  causes  of  disease  should  be  clearly  under- 
stood. A  scientific  estimate  of  the  animal  body, 
its  habits,  and  nature  has  led  to  that  understand- 
ing, and  the  irrefragable  proof;  and  both  will 
become  more  apparent  day  by  day,  as  scientific 
truths  are  submitted  to  the  thinking  and  working 
community.  By  these  means  we  are  daily  adding 
fresh  stores  of  information  in  that  department 
which  relates  to  the  preservation  of  animal  life; 
and  one  of  the  great  principles  is  to  obtain  a 
thorough  acquaintance  with  the  laws  of  health 
which  always  rightly  precedes  a  study  of  the  laws 
of  disease.  Horsekeepers,  stockfeeders,  and  flock- 
masters  require  the  first  in  order  to  adopt  a  cor- 
rect system  of  prevention,  rather  than  seek  disap- 
pointment in  practising  curative  measures,  the 


Preface.  xi 


true  nature  and  variations  of  which  they  can 
have  neither  the  time  nor  the  opportunity  to  un- 
derstand properly. 

These  truths  have  prompted  the  author  to 
treat  rather  fully  the  subject  of  the  physiology 
of  digestion — nature  of  food — principles  by  which 
economy  and  safety  to  animal  life  may  be  gained, 
as  well  as  other  equally  important  matters  which 
come  within  the  notice  of  all  who  have  horses 
under  their  care.  With  a  correct  knowledge  of 
the  healthy  functions  of  animal  life  must  ensue 
greater  respect  for  the  fabric  which  has  been 
termed  "  the  tuneful  harp  of  a  thousand  strings/' 
and  a  correspondingly  increased  desire  and  ability 
to  put  into  force  the  valuable  precepts  which 
are  acquired  by  the  lesson.  The  preservation 
of  our  domestic  animals  is  a  comprehensive  sub- 
ject, and  has  been  eminently  fruitful  in  many 
places  already  where  it  has  met  with  even  an 
ordinary  consideration.  It  is  the  desire  of  the 
author  to  direct  his  efforts  towards  increasing 
the  success  of  the  movement,  and  he  feels  as- 
sured the  present  volume  will  prove  no  slight 
aid  where  the  disposition  to  improve  exists.  The 
non-professional  reader  has  been  considered 
throughout.  Technicalities  have  been  suppressed 
as  far  as  practicable,  or  supplemented  by  expla- 
natory addenda,  which  it  is  hoped  will  bring 


xii  Preface. 

the  work  directly  into  the  hands  of  all  who 
have  animals  placed  under  their  care;  and  suc- 
ceed in  the  diffusion  of  useful  knowledge  in  a 
direction  where  tradition  has  so  long  and  use- 
lessly held  a  seat,  to  the  immense  sacrifice  of  one 
of  the  greatest  sources  of  national  wealth — our 
domestic  animals. 

EASTLAKE  ROAD, 

CAMBEEWELL,  S.E. 


THE 

HORSEOWNER  AND   STABLEMAN'S 
COMPANION, 


PAET  I. 

MISMANAGEMENT. 

MISMANAGEMENT  in  any  department  is  universally 
acknowledged  to  be  the  precursor  of  evil  con- 
sequences, and  one  of  the  golden  rules  in  our 
social  economy  is  that  which  teaches  how  to  re- 
cognise the  one  and  avert  the  other. 

If  there  is  a  section  of  the  community  which 
languidly  basks  in  the  oblivion  of  misrule  more 
than  another/  it  is  that  under  whose  care  are 
placed  our  valuable  domestic  animals,  and  to 
which  we  trace  deterioration  of  breed,  prevalence 
of  disease,  and  a  high  rate  of  mortality. 

As  things  at  present  exist  in  the  many  places  to 
which  these  remarks  apply,  one  would  be  inclined 
to  the  opinion  that  the  study  of  system  in  the  stable 
and  cow-shed  is  unworthy  the  time,  trouble,  atten- 
tion, or  altogether  useless:  hence  the  result;  valu- 
able animals  are  left  to  the  care  of  illiterate  atten- 
dants, who  prescribe  for  their  wants  and  comforts 
under  predominate  ignorance.  At  one  time  they 


Mismanagement. 


are  fed  with  extravagance,  and  at  another  a 
nutritious  meal  is  denied  them. 

Unwarranted  officiousness  also  too  frequently 
provides  a  novel  system,  and  wonders  are  speedily 
developed  in  adverse  of  a  desirable  state,  while 
indisputable  obstinacy  and  prejudice  prevent  the 
recognition  of  cause  and  effect. 

In  ignorance  of  the  nature  of  food,  principles 
of  feeding  and  management,  the  annual  losses 
from  indigestion  and  its  consequences  among 
horses  and  cattle  are  somewhat  startling,  and 
unfortunately  too  common  throughout  Great 
Britain.  Even  in  places  where  we  have  a  right  to 
expect  practical  information  on  the  laws  of  health 
and  the  animal  economy,  confusion  only  remains. 
This  is  particularly  the  case  upon  some  of  the  large 
colliery  establishments  in  the  north  of  England. 

Immense  numbers  of  horses  and  ponies  are 
here  fed  in  accordance  with  principles  laid  down 
by  a  "  land  agent,"  upon  corn  usually  purchased 
by  himself.  These  principles  are  generally 
original,  and  resemble  the  laws  of  the  "Medes 
and  Persians  "  in  being  unalterable. 

During  one  part  of  the  year,  corn  with  an 
excess  of  green  food  is  supplied ;  at  another,  the 
grain  is  spoiled  by  steaming ;  each  period  being 
regulated  in  total  ignorance  and  disregard  of 
existing  conditions,  without  instituting  the  least 
inquiry  in  most  cases,  and  never  making  a  descent 
of  the  mines  to  examine  the  animals  which  come 
in  for  a  share  of  such  magnanimous  solicitude. 


Mismanagement. 


Besides  this  functionary,  there  are  other  mem- 
bers of  the  executive  called  "  viewers,"  who  do 
not  forget  their  exalted  position,  attained  in  some 
instances,  I  fear,  at  a  speed  which  has  not  ad- 
mitted of  the  mind  assuming  an  adaptability  to 
it;  at  least,  judging  from  the  amount  of  pre- 
sumption with  which  these  men  vaunt  their 
opinions  upon  professional  matters,  and  in  their 
want  of  respect  to  others  infinitely  higher  in  the 
social  scale. 

Under  such  principles  of  "  grandeeism,"  it  is 
not  surprising  that,  with  unsystematic  feeding, 
hard  work  unnecessarily  protracted,  with  cruelty 
overlooked  or  connived  at,  mortality  is  excessive. 
The  ears  of  reason  are,  however,  stopped,  and  as 
some  one  must  bear  blame  when  it  is  forthcoming, 
he  who  possesses  the  least  influence  in  the  matter 
— the  resident  veterinary  surgeon — receives  the 
whole  in  a  most  ignominious  manner. 

Happily  all  are  not  of  this  kind. 

Some  of  my  best  friends  are  engaged  in  the 
management  of  extensive  collieries,  and  have  amply 
shown  what  can  be  done  to  ameliorate  the  life 
and  condition  of  the  poor  creatures  employed 
there.  Such  bear  a  remarkable  contrast  to  the 
former  class,  who  never  recognise  the  efforts  of 
others  except  when  they  can  be  appropriated  as 
their  own  good  deeds,  by  which  they  seek  the 
adulation  of  the  owner,  and  swamp  into  in- 
significance him  who  feels  it  an  imperative  duty 
to  utter  a  word  for  reform  or  economy.  This 


Mismanagement. 


is  the  "  red-tape,"  for  the  exercise  of  -which 
I  presume  owners  who  know  it  not  pay  rather 
dearly, 

It  has  been  known  that  reports  detailing  the 
existence  of  glaring  evils  easily  remedied  by  a 
change  of  system,  requiring  no  extra  outlay,  but 
insuring  a  highly  profitable  investment,  drawn  up 
by  able  men  —  veterinary  surgeons — who  have 
studied  these  matters  for  years  and  practised  them 
successfully,  and  who,  after  sending  them  to  head- 
quarters by  desire,  have  been  treated  con- 
temptuously— such  men  have  been  told,  "your 
information  is  only  a  parcel  of  figures"  or  after 
being  summoned  to  the  office  of  the  "  viewer," 
"you  had  better  not  interfere  in  such  matters;  things 
have  gone  along  very  well  hitherto,  and  no  com- 
plaint has  been  made  from  above ;  you  receive  your 
salary,  and  it  will  be  advisable  that  you  should  not 
report  these  things  beyond  myself." 

Existing  affairs  are  permitted  to  go  on  as  before, 
but  the  information  thus  obtained  is  put  aside,  in 
order  to  be  applied  as  perfectly  original  matter 
at  a  time  when  the  proper  owner  is  not  present 
to  identify  it. 

A  few  years  ago,  in  a  paper  read  before  a 
certain  farmers'  club,  I  gave  the  details  of  a 
system  of  feeding  colliery  horses  which  had  been 
successfully  carried  on  by  the  resident  veterinary 
surgeon  some  years,  and  resulted  in  the  annual 
saving  of  hundreds  of  pounds. 

The   local  newspapers    gave  full  reports,  the 


Mismanagemen  t. 


executive  was  jealous  of  the  honour  given,  and 
immediately  took  the  feeding  into  their  own 
hands. 

On  another  occasion  Mr. Hunting,  M.R.C.V.S., 
attended  the  Newcastle  Farmers'  Club,  in 
obedience  to  a  request,  to  detail  the  system  which 
he  had  carried  out  successfully  both  as  to  the 
saving  of  expenditure  and  preventing  mortality. 
The  usual  feeling  of  malice  and  jealousy  prevailed 
here  also,  for  some  unknown  person  forwarded  a 
parcel  of  hay-seeds  and  rubbish  to  the  chairman, 
with  the  statement  that  the  sample  was  taken 
from  the  kind  of  provender  which  Mr.  Hunting 
used,  and  was  about  to  recommend  to  the  meeting. 

Such  is  the  treatment  with  which  professional 
men  are  met  upon  some  of  the  extensive  colliery 
estates  of  Britain.  Instructions  received  from 
"  head-quarters"  point  out  the  necessity  for  sur- 
veillance over  the  provender,  mode  of  feeding, 
work,  &c.,  by  the  veterinary -surgeon ;  but  to  de- 
tect an  error  and  point  it  out  as  required, 
although  an  enormous  saving  would  accrue  from 
a  change,  is  to  render  him  odious  in  the  eyes  of 
despotism.  If  he  wishes  to  hold  his  appoint- 
ment, it  must  be  by  the  sacrifice  of  conscientious 
duty,  an  assumed  blindness  to,  and  perfect  silence 
upon,  such  topics.  If  he  persists  in  his  course, 
the  results  are  known  only  to  himself. 

While  this  treatment  is  permitted,  it  is  not 
very  likely  that  great  improvements,  or  the 
avoidance  of  unnecessary  expenditure,  waste,  and 


Mism  anagemen  t. 


mortality  will  take  place  in  tlie  departments  re- 
ferred to.  Owners  may  still  complain  about  the 
disparity  between  profits  and  expenses.  Efficient 
veterinary  surgeons  (and  there  are  men  in  the 
body  of  practitioners  as  valuable  in  their  calling 
as  viewers  are  in  theirs),  desirous  of  establishing 
necessary  and  profitable  reformation  in  depart- 
ments essentially  their  own,  lose  interest,  and 
weary  in  well-doing  after  repeated  insults  of  the 
kind  referred  to  are  heaped  upon  them.  They  are 
not  allowed  a  word  in  explanation,  and  at  length 
retire  in  disgust,  and  the  places  are  filled  by  auto- 
matons— mere  machines — who  generally  occupy 
such  posts  with  greater  satisfaction  to  those  who 
fill  up  the  executive  and  revel  in  the  exercise  of 
despotic  power. 

It  is  not  only  in  reference  to  colliery  animals 
where  mismanagement  occurs.  We  need  but 
turn  our  attention  to  the  system  pursued  in  our 
large  town  and  farm  stables  ;  and  cattle  and  sheep 
also  are  found  to  participate  in  the  general  results. 
Veterinary  surgeons  in  some  districts  can 
testify  to  the  bulk  of  their  cases  being  those 
which  arise  from  indigestion,  and  the  insurance 
papers  of  many  a  defunct  society  would  afford 
doleful  tales  of  sudden  death  from  the  same  states, 
causing  rupture  of  the  stomach,  intestines,  or 
diaphragm,  calculi  (or  stones),  and  incurable 
diabetes  running  into  farcy  and  glanders. 

Farmers    are    fully    conversant    with    similar 
results   also,  which  find  an   origin   in  the  cheap 


Mismanagem  ent. 


and  inferior  bean  or  pea  straw,  musty  hay,  and 
supposed  economical  system  of  feeding  with  little 
or  no  corn. 

Among  his  cattle  he  endures  losses  from  en- 
gorged and  ruptured  stomach,  splenic  apoplexy, 
black-leg,  parturient  diseases,  diarrho3a,  and 
dysentery;  and  among  his  sheep,  in  addition  to 
the  above,  skin  and  parasitic  diseases. 

The  London  brewers  have  to  lament  the  loss 
of  their  plump  dray  horses  from  rupture  and 
disease  of  the  liver  ;  and  Scotch  proprietors  suffer 
no  less,  though  rather  differently,  fnom  the  use  of 
trashy  boiled  mixtures  of  food. 

In  the  coal  mines,  where  proper  surveillance  is 
not  permitted,  and  stupid  customs  are  adhered  to, 
indigestion,  with  its  attendant  states,  carries  off 
many  valuable  lives,  and  the  cause  is  looked  upon 
as  inducing  a  condition  which  must  be  endured, 
or  the  evil  as  a  manifestation  of  some  peculiar 
influence,  probably  of  a  planetary  character. 

Notwithstanding  this,  all  busy  themselves  in 
searching  for  a  cure,  without  going  further  to 
attempt  a  solution  of  the  mystery,  which  may  be 
interpreted  by  the  principle  of  prevention.  We 
thus  go  on  in  blindness  and  obstinacy,  seeking 
after  some  brilliant  theory,  and  in  eager  pursuit 
of  that  which  is  remote,  neglect  the  highly  pro- 
fitable and  easily  deciphered  lessons  which,  already 
pregnant  with  most  ample  information,,  are  com- 
pletely within  the  grasp. 


DEVELOPMENT  AND  MAINTENANCE. 

A  discussion  of  the  subject  of  food  and  its 
application  to  the  animal  fabric,  involves  a  con- 
sideration of  scientific  principles  which  reveal  the 
exact  nature  of  the  substances  employed,  their 
transformation  within  the  organism,  and  the 
offices  they  perform  at  their  destination. 

The  immediate  object  of  food  is  the  development 
and  maintenance  of  the  animal  body. 

Development  may  be  briefly  stated  to  be  that 
process  by  which  the  various  parts  or  organs 
assume  their  relative  form,  size,  and  capabilities 
for  functional  activity — e.g.,  secretion,  excretion, 
and  the  like.  Development  is  principally  refer- 
able to  intra-uterine  life,  or  that  period  during 
which  the  future  animal  lies  within  the  womb  of 
its  mother,  when  the  various  organs,  as  the  brain, 
heart,  lungs,  liver,  and  in  fact  all  parts  of  the 
body,  are  acquiring  their  peculiar  and  characteristic 
form. 

Each  primitive  portion  gradually  and  con- 
stantly receives  fresh  additions,  and  each  stage 
constitutes  also  a  farther  elaboration  and  assump- 
tion of  higher  powers. 

Development  continues  also  throughout  a 
period  after  birth.  The  long-legged,  weedy-look- 
ing foal  is  an  example  excellently  suitable  for 
the  purpose  of  illustration.  Although  as  far  as 
internal  organs  are  concerned,  development  may 
be  said  to  be  in  a  measure  complete,  yet  there 


Development  and  Maintenance. 


are  important  changes  to  be  otherwise  effected. 
The  muscles  of  the  body  are  small  and  pale,  and 
the  bones  (so  called)  are  very  deficient  in  osseous 
material  (earthy  salts).  A  few  teeth  only  are 
through  the  gums,  and  others  are  lying  in 
different  stages  beneath  in  the  form  of  a  highly 
vascular  pulp,  quite  unlike  its  future  self. 

In  each  there  are  important  changes  to  take 
place. 

The  bundles  of  cartilage  in  the  centre  of  the 
limbs  and  beneath  the  muscles  of  the  body,  &c., 
gradually  become  harder,  and  lose  their  charac- 
teristic elasticity.  Their  structure  is  altered  by 
the  deposition  of  bony  material,  and  by  and 
bye  we  have  the  osseous  framework  or  skeleton 
completed. 

The  pale  muscular  fibres  assume  greater  dimen- 
sions, and  at  the  same  time  a  darker  colour,  and 
power  to  act  more  forcibly  on  the  individual 
bones. 

The  tooth  pulp  within  the  gums,  already  pro- 
vided with  innumerable  blood  vessels  and  nerves, 
gradually  acquires  the  shape  of  a  tooth,  incisor 
or  molar,  its  different  layers  of  hard  substance 
variously  termed  dentine,  enamel,  &c.,  and  only 
at  a  specified  time  will  it  appear  above  the 
surface. 

At  length  the  animal  is  "  filled  up,"  "  made 
up/"  or  "  furnished/''  in  stable  phraseology,  and 
the  period  of  youth  gives  way  to  that  which  is 
known  as  the  adult  stage. 


10         Development  and  Maintenance. 


Maintenance  has  been  going  on  throughout  the 
whole  of  this  time.  Functional  activity  is  at- 
tended by  a  process  of  waste  or  decay  of  the 
parts  implicated.  This  process  will  be  hereafter 
expressed  as  metamorphosis  of  tissues. 

In  no  period  of  life  can  this  process  be  said 
to  be  dormant  or  non-existent,  but  in  none  so 
slow  or  so  little  required  as  in  early  youth.  At 
this  time  the  building  up  of  the  animal  body  by 
the  accumulation  of  blood,  bone,  muscle,  hoof, 
horn,  teeth,  hair,  &c.,  &c.,  is  actively  carried  on, 
and  their  waste  or  decay  comparatively  small. 
In  adult  life,  however,  when  development  has 
gone  on  to  completion,  and  great  exertion  is 
called  forth,  metamorphosis  or  change  in  the 
constitution  of  the  tissues  above  mentioned  is 
great. 

This  requires  the  process  of  maintenance  or 
repair  to  restore,  during  repose,  that  which  has 
being  constantly  lost  during  activity  or  exercise. 

The  movements  of  the  arms  or  legs  in  walk- 
ing, the  tongue  and  jaws  in  speaking,  lungs 
during  respiration,  heart  in  its  beating,  and  in- 
testines during  contraction, — in  short,  any  act, 
voluntary  or  involuntary,  which  calls  forth  mus- 
cular movements  in  any  part  of  the  animal  body, 
is  attended  with  the  expenditure  of  vital  force,  as 
shown  in  the  change  or  alteration  of  the  condi- 
tion, waste,  decay,  or  metamorphosis  of  the  com- 
posing material. 

During     metamorphosis    of    tissue    chemical 


Development  and  Maintenance.         11 


action  is  instituted,  and  new  compounds  are  pro- 
duced which  are  no  longer  useful  to  the  body. 
They  are  called  effete  materials,  and  after  being 
collected  by  appropriate  vessels  termed  lymphatics, 
are  by  them  conveyed  to  special  organs  for  the 
purpose  of  being  expelled.  If  retained,  they 
would  prove  highly  detrimental  to  the  body,  and 
even  destructive  to  life. 

The  waste  of  muscular  tissue  from  work  and 
ordinary  exercise  is  considerable,  that  substance 
forming  a  great  portion  of  the  animal  body. 
It  is  constantly  in  need  of  fresh  material  to 
restore  or  replace  those  parts  which  have  been 
removed  by  waste,  and  the  elements  necessary 
are  provided  by  the  food,  after  undergoing  im- 
portant changes  hereafter  to  be  mentioned  under 
digestion. 

Such  facts,  briefly  as  they  are  detailed,  and 
divested,  as  far  as  practicable,  of  technicalities, 
present  most  important  points  to  view,  and 
enable  us  to  direct  particular  attention  to  the 
application  and  economising  of  material  (food) 
for  the  production  of  the  greatest  amount  of 
actual  force — strength  and  vigour  in  working 
animals,  or  of  fat  in  those  destined  for  the 
butcher. 

With  these  before  us,  the  effects  of  some  of 
the  modes  in  which  animals  are  kept,  will  be 
clearly  understood. 

Under  the  subject  of  development  it  has  been 
stated  the  process  is  confined  to  intra-uterine 


12          Development  and  Maintenance. 


life  and  early  periods  of  youth.  It  is  then  we 
find  the  great  demands  upon  the  system  in  order 
to  complete  the  formation  and  building  up  of  the 
whole  body.  Every  one  almost  knows  that  much 
more  food  than  ordinarily  is  consumed  by  the 
pregnant  mare  or  cow,  and  that  the  young 
animal  consumes  much  food  of  a  nutritious 
quality  without  the  appearance  being  in  all  cases 
obviously  benefited  thereby. 

These  illustrations  serve  to  show  the  great 
demands  for  blood,  bone,  muscle,  skin,  hair, 
hoof,  tendons,  &c.  &c.,  and  a  moment's  reflection 
will  cause  one  to  pause  and  wonder  how  some 
persons  can  really  expect  to  make  a  horse,  cow, 
or  other  animal  upon  the  quantities  of  miserable 
rubbish  which  are  put  in  the  poor  creatures'  way 
when  young. 

How  they  can  witness  their  colts  and  calves 
standing  without  cover  in  an  empty  straw-yard 
or  bare  pasture  in  the  cold  and  rain  during  the 
winter,  and  expect  the  grass  of  the  coming  sum- 
mer will  make  up  for  the  previous  starvation,  is 
indeed  a  paradox.  It  appears  quite  sufficient 
with  some  that  a  horse  should  taste  corn  only 
when  he  is  able  to  earn  it,  and  cattle  when  they 
commence  to  give  milk,  or  there  are  prospects 
of  their  being  useful  to  the  butcher. 

All  this  is  mistaken  policy.  The  young  horse 
or  ox  requires  ample  food  for  the  building  up  of 
the  frame,  and  we  discern  the  wise  provision  of 
nature  in  furnishing  the  rich  elements  in  the 


Development  and  Maintenance.         13 


milk  of  the  mother.  Both  need  highly  nutri- 
tious food,  and  when  this  is  denied,  the  owner 
finds  he  is  on  the  sure  road  towards  spoiling 
them.  They  always  suffer  acutely  when  good  food 
is  afterwards  given ;  the  change  serves  only  to 
engender  serious,  if  not  fatal,  disease.  Instances 
will  be  found  in  the  maladies  black-leg  or  quarter- 
evil,  splenic  apoplexy,  blain,  &c.,  of  cattle  and 
sheep. 

In  the  horse  we  find,  when  put  to  work  for 
the  first  time,  he  is  "  unable  to  stand  the  corn  •" 
the  legs  swell,  coat  stares,  he  performs  his  work 
badly,  and  there  are  other  indications  of  a  dis- 
ordered state  within. 

Colic,  or  purpura  hamorrhagica,  speedily  kills 
him,  or  he  is  left  to  dole  out  a  miserable  exist- 
ence with  protracted  suffering  from  chronic 
disease  of  the  lungs  or  liver,  diabetes,  canker, 
laminitis  (founder),  constant  attacks  of  lymphan- 
gitis (weed),  and  farcy,  terminating,  after 
effectually  propagating  the  contagion,  in  glanders 
and  death. 

As  life  and  development  proceeds,  food  then 
serves  a  different  purpose.  While  it  is  expended 
in  supplying  fresh  elements  to  the  blood,  that 
fluid  has  now  to  furnish  elaborate  materials  to 
replace  the  constituents  of  the  body  lost 
during  waste  of  muscle  and  other  tissues, 
which  are  rendered  visible  in  the  shape  of 
the  products  of  respiration,  perspiration,  the 
urine,  and  faeces.  What  formerly  went  to  form 


14;  Organs  of  Digestion. 


muscle,  bone,  &c.,  now  goes  to  repair  them.  The 
blood  in  all  cases  is  the  fluid  which  furnishes  the 
pabulum  whence  tissues  derive  their  support. 
That  fluid  is  maintained  by  regular  additions  of 
elements  obtained  from  the  food.  The  process 
which  prepares  them  we  have  to  consider  shortly. 


ORGANS   OF   DIGESTION. 

The  organs  of  digestion  comprise  the  mouth, 
teeth,  tongue,  salivary  glands,  pharynx,  (esophagus 
or  gullet,  stomach,  intestines,  liver,  and  pancreas" 
or  sweetbread. 

In  connexion  with  the  mouth  we  find  appro- 
priate muscles  forming  the  bulk  of  the  lips  and 
sides  for  the  prehension  or  gathering  of  food,  and 
incisor  teeth  or  nippers— six  above  and  below  in 
the  horse,  and  eight  only  below  in  the  ox,  sheep, 
deer,  &c. — for  the  purpose  of  cutting  off  the 
herbage.  Within  the  mouth  the  tongue  performs 
the  important  office  of  distinguishing  by  the 
peculiar  sense  of  taste,  the  difference  in  each 
variety  of  substances  introduced,  and  moves  them 
from  side  to  side  in  order  to  bring  them  within 
the  pressure  of  the  molar  teeth  or  grinders.  The 
tongue  at  length,  by  a  contraction  upon  itself 
backwards,  carries  the  bolus  of  food  with  it, 
which  is  then  seized  by  the  pharynx,  and  passes 
immediately  along  the  gullet  to  the  stomach. 

The    cheeks    on    each    side    being   formed  of 


Organs  of  Digestion.  ]  5 


muscles,  assist  materially  in  keeping  the  food 
effectually  between  the  molar  teeth.  Through 
their  substance  pass  ducts  or  tubes  which  convey 
necessary  lubricating  and  solvent  fluids  to  the 
mouth. 

The  molars  or  grinders  are  twenty-four  in 
number,  six  of  which  are  situated  above  and  be- 
low upon  each  side  of  the  jaws  in  the  back  part 
of  the  mouth.  In  order  to  observe  them  par- 
ticularly the  mouth  must  be  held  wide  open. 

They  are  large  and  rough  upon  the  wearing 
surface,  and  form  most  perfect  agents  in  crush- 
ing and  grinding,  or  masticating  the  hard  grain 
and  kernels  which  this  animal  requires  as  natural 
food. 

The  pharynx  is  a  musculo-membranous  bag  or 
pouch  which  opens  at  the  back  of  the  mouth, 
and  grasps  the  bolus  of  food  as  it  is  presented 
by  the  tongue.  Arrived  at  this  point,  its  appro- 
priate muscles  successively  contract  and  force 
onwards  the  pellet  to  the  further  end  opening 
into  the  gullet.  The  food  is  now  beyond  the 
control  of  the  will,  and  cannot  be  returned  by 
any  effort  of  a  natural  character. 

The  oesophagus  or  gullet  is  also  composed  partly 
of  muscles  and  membrane.  It  forms  an  elastic 
tube  reaching  from  the  pharynx  above  to  the 
stomach  below,  and  occupies  a  position  in  the 
neck  upon  the  left  side  of  the  lower  portion.  A 
knowledge  of  this  fact  enables  us  to  trace  the 
passage  of  substances  throughout  its  visible 


16  Insalivation. 


course.  The  remaining  part  of  the  gullet  passes 
through  the  chest,  and  is  called  the  thoracic  por- 
tion. The  passage  of  food  through  the  pharynx 
and  gullet  is  termed  deglutition  or  swallowing. 


INSALIVATIOX. 

The  mouth  is  abundantly  supplied  with  fluid 
for  the  purpose  of  lubricating  its  surfaces  during 
motion  in  mastication.  It  also  possesses  peculiar 
solvent  and  chemical  actions  upon  alimentary 
matters  introduced,  and  thus  effects  special 
changes  in  their  constitution,  of  vital  importance 
to  digestion  and  assimilation. 

Saliva  is  the  name  given  to  this  fluid,  and  is 
the  produce  of  glands  in  the  vicinity,  the  largest, 
the  parotid  gland,  being  placed  below  the  ear 
behind  the  angle  of  the  lower  jaw.  In  addition 
there  are  others  of  a  smaller  character  situated 
beneath  the  tongue,  between  the  sides  of  the 
jaw,  inside  the  lips  and  other  parts ;  all  of  which 
separately  contribute  important  properties  to  the 
fluids  which  mix  in  the  mouth,  whence  they  are 
conveyed  by  appropriate  tubes  or  ducts. 

The  solvent  action  of  saliva  depends  upon  the 
presence  of  peculiar  salts  and  a  principle  called 
ptyalin  by  scientific  men,  and  is  easily  demon- 
strated by  placing  food  within  the  mouth.  It  is 
also  found  to  act  efficiently  when  collected  in 
suitable  vessels  and  brought  into  contact  with 


Insalivation.  I 7 


certain  alimentary  matters.  Its  power  of  alter- 
ing the  constitution  of  compounds  is  purely 
a  chemical  action,  and  is  most  peculiarly  well 
marked  upon  those  of  a  starchy  character, 
abundance  of  which  are  found  in  the  food  upon 
which  horses  and  cattle  subsist.  Through  this 
influence  they  are  converted  into  a  principle 
called  dextrine,  and  subsequently  into  grape  sugar. 

The  salivary  glands  are  under  the  control  of 
the  nervous  system.  In  the  human  subject,  the 
sight  or  smell  of  food  of  an  agreeable  character 
is  sufficient  to  cause  a  copious  flow  to  the  mouth  ; 
hence  the  common  expression  "  the  mouth 
waters." 

Saliva  is  secreted  abundantly.  The  exact 
amount  of  this  fluid  which  is  formed  is  not  easily 
obtained.  A  large  horse  is  supposed  to  secrete 
84lbs.  per  day,  an  ox  1021bs.  Mr.  Hunting  ob- 
tained half  a  gallon,  or  about  five  pounds  in  half 
an  hour. 

The  uses  of  saliva  are  important  and  manifold. 
First,  we  have  an  abundant  flow;  second,  its 
peculiar  solvent  power ;  third,  its  chemical  action 
in  converting  starchy  matters  into  sugar;  fourth, 
its  lubricating  qualities  during  the  presence  of 
absorbing,  or  coarse  and  rough,  substances;  fifth, 
it  is  secreted  in  major  part  during  mastic ationy 
and  continues  as  long  as  that  act  is  carried  on. 

This  category  of  properties  in  a  simple-looking 
fluid  like  saliva  must  have  been  conferred  for  a 
beneficial  purpose. 


18  Insalivation. 


We  find  such  to  be  a  law  throughout  nature. 
That  purpose  is  essentially  the  primary  step  in 
rendering  the  component  parts  of  the  food 
assimilable,  i.e.,  converting  them  into  constituent 
parts  of  the  blood. 

Being  secreted  at  the  time  when  the  food  is 
undergoing  comminution  between  the  teeth,  it  is 
presented  at  a  period  when  it  will  be  most 
effective.  Food,  therefore,  which  is  swallowed 
quickly  or  greedily,  without  proper  mastication, 
obtains  little  saliva,  and  the  necessary  trans- 
formations are  not  carried  out. 

It  is  impossible  to  supply  a  fluid  artificially 
which  can  take  the  place  of  saliva.  Mere  satura- 
tion of  the  food  by  water  does  not  promote 
digestibility  as  a  consequence. 

This  has  been  satisfactorily  proved  many 
times.  If  the  salivary  glands  are  prevented  from 
discharging  their  contents  into  the  mouth  during 
mastication,  and  water  is  thrown  among  the  mass 
within  the  stomach,  digestion  is  retarded.  We 
have  positive  evidence  of  this  in  daily  practice  in 
those  establishments  where  owners  persist  in  using 
boiled  mixtures  of  food,  which  is  done  in  utter 
neglect  of  the  most  important  fact  that  the  horse 
has  perfect  grinders  to  crush  and  break  down 
everything  which  comes  in  the  way  of  natural 
food,  with  the  best  solvent  immediately  at  hand, 
and  in  unlimited  quantity,  to  effect  a  primary 
transformation  towards  the  production  of  blood, 
bone,  muscle,  hoof,  hair,  &c.  &c. 


Insalivation.  19 


The  practice  is  an  attempt  to  set  aside  nature, 
and  might  be  excused  if  none  of  the  above  ap- 
pliances are  present,  or  their  capabilities  in  part 
destroyed.  We  are  so  accustomed  to  treat  the 
horse  by  analogy,  thus  convicting  him  in  the  ex- 
ercise of  irregular  practices,  errors  of  body  and 
mind  in  common  with  ourselves,  that  we  natur- 
ally prescribed  a  mode  of  treatment  based  upon 
conditions  supposed  to  exist. 

Even  a  moderate  acquaintance  with  the  or- 
ganized fabric  of  man  and  the  higher  animals 
leads  to  a  different  conclusion.  It  proves  the 
practice  unscientific,  unsystematic,  foreign,  and 
unnatural. 

I  shall  have  more  to  offer  upon  the  question 
of  boiled  food  when  a  description  of  other  organs 
has  been  given. 

After  the  food  has  undergone  the  necessary 
processes  of  mastication  and  insalivation,  and,  as 
it  passes  backwards  in  the  act  of  swallowing  or 
deglutition,  it  becomes  coated  with  a  thick  mucous 
or  viscous  secretion,  thrown  out  from  glands  on 
the  inner  surface  of  the  pharynx  and  gullet.  It 
accumulates  as  the  mass  descends,  and  forms  a 
thick  greasy  kind  of  coating,  the  proceeding 
having  for  its  object  mainly  the  avoidance  of 
aggregation  and  stoppage  in  the  gullet,  a  condi- 
tion which  under  aggravated  states  constitutes 
choking.* 

*  It  not  uncommonly  happens  after  hard  work  and  long  fasts 
the  horse,  returning  weary  and  hungry,  ravenously  swallows  his 

c  2 


20 


THE   STOMACH. 

Descending  the  gullet  the  bolus  of  food  at 
length  reaches  the  stomach,  a  pouch  or  dilatation 
of  that  tube.  In  the  stomach  further  important 
changes  are  executed  in  the  constitution  of  the 
food. 

In  man  this  organ  performs  the  greater  por- 
tion of  the  process  of  digestion.  In  the  horse 
and  ox  but  little  analogy  exists,  and  the  essential 
points  of  difference  will  repay  even  a  cursory 
examination. 

The  ox  is  endowed  with  four  stomachs,  or 
what  is  more  in  keeping  with  anatomical  descrip- 
tion, a  quadrisect  stomach,  i.e.,  containing  four 
distinct  compartments,  each  of  which  possesses 
different  functions. 

The  first  compartment  is  one  of  immense 
capacity.  It  occupies  three-fourths  of  the 
abdomen,  and  is  able  to  accommodate  a  great 
quantity  of  ingesta. 

The  second  is  small,  and  contains  more   fluid 


food  without  due  mastication  and  insalivation.  The  secretions 
are  deficient  by  reason  of  fatigue  or  nervous  depression  and  other 
causes.  The  bolus  is  speedily  despatched,  almost  dry,  and 
choking  is  apt  to  occur  in  its  worst  forms.  If  the  food  reaches 
the  stomach  aggravated  colic  is  almost  certain. 

See  my  Prize  Essay  "  On  the  Diseases  of  Farm  Horses," 
published  in  the  Transactions  of  the  High^nd  and  Agricultural 
Society  of  Scotland,  Article — "  Choking." 


Stomach.  21 


than  the  first,  but  both  act  in  common  in  mace- 
rating and  securing  successive  changes  in  the 
food. 

The  third  exerts  a  degree  of  pressure,  by  means 
of  its  peculiar  leaves,  upon  the  alimentary  matters 
arrested  by  it. 

The  fourth  is  the  true  digestive  compartment, 
and  resembles  the  stomach  of  man  and  the  dog 
principally. 

The  ox  is  essentially  an  animal  capable  only 
of  limited  and  not  rapid  exertion.  The  structure 
and  arrangement  of  the  digestive  organs  are 
clearly  intended  to  accommodate  large  quantities 
of  herbage  of  a  mixed  character,  for  which  the 
functions  are  admirably  fitted. 

The  horse,  on  the  other  hand,  being  made  and 
required  for  rapid  exertion,  could  not  fulfil  those 
ends  with  the  digestive  organs  of  the  ox,  and, 
therefore,  like  man  and  the  carnivora,  but  one 
stomach  or  compartment  is  provided,  which  is 
both  comparatively  and  relatively  smaller. 

The  process  of  digestion  is  also  wonderfully 
effective. 

Whilst  the  ox  has  been  known  to  retain  food 
for  upwards  of  six  weeks  within  his  stomach, 
little  more  than  as  many  hours  will  suffice  to 
ensure  digestion  in  the  horse.  The  process  is, 
therefore,  also  wonderfully  rapid. 

The  stomach  of  the  horse,  replete  with  food, 
acts  as  a  great  impediment  to  the  action  of  the 
lungs,  hence  the  great  number  of  cases  of  broken 


22  The  Stomach. 


wind  and  chronic  cough,  which  are  known  to  occur 
from  irregular  principles  of  feeding. 

The  horse  cannot  occupy  himself  in  ru- 
mination or  digestion  almost  entirely  as 
the  ox.  He  is  required  to  undertake  the  re- 
moval of  heavy  loads,  or  otherwise  engaged  in 
rapid  exertion.  A  rapid  digestion  in  his  stomach 
is  therefore  a  very  wise  provision  to  relieve  the 
lungs  during  action. 

I  have  purposely  exhibited  substances  of 
different  degrees  of  solubility,  and  possessing  a 
strong  odour,  to  animals  about  to  be  slaughtered, 
and  have  been  particularly  struck  with  the  fact 
that,  in  the  short  space  of  time  which  has  elapsed 
between  the  administration  of  the  medicine  and 
opening  the  stomach,  not  a  trace  beyond  the 
odour  of  the  substance  could  be  detected.  The 
paper  in  which  it  was  wrapped  was  usually  found 
in  the  stomach,but  the  medicine  had  passed  several 
yards  along  the  gut,  frequently  within  one  hour. 

Similar  facts  are  observable  with  regard  to 
food.  I  have  known  horses  and  ponies  suddenly 
killed  in  coal  mines  by  a  fall  of  portions  of 
the  roof  within  one  or  two  hours  after  a  meal, 
and  on  examining  the  stomach  it  has  been  ob- 
served that  digestion  has  progressed  rapidly  and 
effectively  in  that  organ,  only  a  small  portion, 
the  most  indigestible,  remaining  behind.  The 
more  easily  digestible  portion  had  usually  passed 
along  the  intestines  in  distances  varying  from  ten 
to  twenty  feet  or  more. 


The  Intestines.  23 


It  is  a  rule  that  all  portions  of  greater  solu- 
bility iu  the  secretions,  i.e.,  more  digestible,  first 
pass  out  from  the  stomach  in  health. 

Fluids  also  pass  rapidly.  They  are  usually 
carried  to  the  caecum,  a  large  gut  situate  about 
twenty  yards  from  the  stomach  in  large  horses, 
twenty  minutes  being  usually  sufficient. 

These  illustrations  definitely  explain  why  a 
horse  occupies  so  much  time  consuming  food. 
Put  him  into  the  stable  after  a  day's  work,  and  he 
will  be  found  eating  the  greater  part  of  the 
night.  A  small  stomach,  capable  of  effective  and 
rapid  action,  is  quickly  emptied  of  its  contents, 
and  the  desire  for  food,  therefore,  becomes  almost 
constant. 

We  should  gather  from  this  also  the  absolute 
necessity  of  a  regular  supply  of  food,  and  abolition 
of  long  fasts  and  full  racks  and  mangers  when 
the  animal  returns  to  the  stable. 


THE   INTESTINES. 

The  intestines  are  of  two  kinds,  small  and 
large.  In  the  horse  they  occupy  the  greater 
portion  of  the  cavity  of  the  abdomen,  and 
constitute  the  largest  part  of  the  alimentary 
track. 

The  whole  length  may  be  estimated  at  about 
ninety  feet,  or  ranging  from  twenty-six  to  thirty 
yards. 


24  The  Intestines. 


The  small  intestines  commence  at  the  stomach, 
and  in  their  course  receive  the  several  names 
duodenum,  jejunum,  and  ilium,  the  divisions  being 
purely  imaginary. 

About  five  or  six  inches  below  the  stomach  are 
the  orifices  which  discharge  the  secretions  of  the 
liver  (bile)  and  pancreas  (a  fluid  resembling  saliva) . 
Besides  these,  other  special  fluids  are  poured  from 
the  walls  (coats)  throughout  the  length  of  the  canal. 

The  walls  are  strong  and  provided  with  mus- 
cular fibres,  as  the  gullet  and  stomach,  to  pro- 
duce the  necessary  contractions  (vermicular  or 
worm-like)  in  order  to  subject  the  contents 
(ingesta)  to  the  action  of  the  various  fluids,  as 
well  as  cause  it  to  pass  onwards. 

Throughout  the  inner  surfaces  of  the  small 
intestines  a  number  of  peculiar  vessels  are  seen 
to  enter.  Their  office  is  to  abstract  the  nutri- 
tious elements  of  the  food,  which  after  meeting 
with  the  various  secretions  in  the  tube,  assumes 
a  whitish  creamy  consistence,  and  is  termed 
chyle.  The  vessels  here  spoken  of  are  termed 
lacteals.  They  communicate  with  other  vessels 
and  glands.  In  them  the  chyle  as  it  passes  on- 
wards alters  its  constitution,  and  by  successive 
stages  assumes  the  character  of  the  blood  with 
which  it  is  afterwards  mixed.  This  constitutes 
the  process  of  assimilation. 

The  small  intestines  are  from  fifty  to  sixty  feet 
in  length,  and  will  accommodate  from  eight  to 
elevens  gallons  of  fluid. 


The  Intestines.  25 


The  large  intestines  of  the  horse  are  very 
rapacious  organs.  The  first,  the  caecum,  is  a 
large  conical  pouch  or  bag,  usually  known  as  the 
blind  gut.  In  it  are  collected  principally  the 
iluids  drank,  together  with  solid  matters.  The 
former  occupy  the  extremity,  the  latter  remain 
at  the  base.  Absorption  of  fluids  takes  place 
from  the  csecum  in  large  proportion,  and  its  con- 
tents are  usually  alkaline  from  the  changes  which 
take  place  in  starchy  constituents. 

The  colon  is  continued  next  in  order  to  the 
csecum.  It  is  doubled  upon  itself,  both  parts 
throughout  its  entire  length  being  united  by  in- 
tervening tissue,  and  traverses  both  sides  and 
front  of  the  abdomen  twice,  terminating  in  the 
rectum  near  the  point  from  which  it  arises  from 
the  csecum  on  the  right  side. 

The  csecum  and  colon  do  not  possess  such 
thick  muscular  walls  as  the  small  intestines,  but 
strong  bands  run  longitudinally  on  four  sides. 
These  being  considerably  shorter  than  the  intes- 
tines, have  the  effect  of  drawing  them  into 
puckers  or  folds,  forming  on  the  inner  side  a 
number  of  pouches,  which  assist  in  giving  the 
characteristic  form  to  the  faeces  or  dung  in  the 
horse. 

The  rectum  is  very  strong  and  muscular,  but 
not  so  capacious,  tolerably  cylindrical,  and  termi- 
nates the  alimentary  track  at  the  anus  or  funda- 
ment. Absorption  from  the  large  intestines  is 
principally  confined  to  the  csecum.  The  colon 


26  The  Digestive  Process. 

and  rectum  minister  but  little  to  that  process. 
The  capacity  of  the  large  intestines  greatly  ex- 
ceeds that  of  the  small.  The  caecum  will  contain 
about  four  gallons  of  fluid,  the  colon  about 
twelve,  and  the  rectum  about  three  gallons. 

THE   DIGESTIVE   PROCESS. 

The  process  of  digestion  is  most  complex  and 
important,  and  deservedly  receives  an  extended 
notice  in  all  authentic  works  on  animal  physi- 
ology. It  is  impossible  here  to  do  more  than 
briefly  notice  the  leading  stages,  which  are  in- 
dispensable, but  sufficient  towards  explaining 
generally  the  object  for  which  these  pages  are 
written. 

Gastric  digestion. — In  the  stomach  the  food, 
already  incorporated  with  the  salivary  and  other 
secretions,  is  subjected  to  peculiar  movements  or 
contractions  of  the  muscular  walls,  described 
usually  as  a  "  churning  action/'  It  is  thus 
moved  from  one  part  to  another  and  further  in- 
corporated with  secretions  (gastric  juice)  derived 
from  glands  (gastric  glands)  situate  in  the  walls 
of  the  organ. 

The  gastric  juice  possesses  acid  properties,  and 
a  peculiar  principle  termed  pepsine,  which  with 
the  action  of  the  stomach  effects  a  reduction  of 
the  food  to  a  uniform  mass.  The  particles  are 
in  a  fine  state  of  division,  and  albuminous  prm- 


The  Digestive  Process.  27 


ciples  chiefly  suffer  chemical  decomposition.  At 
length  the  whole  becomes  a  thick  fluid  and  passes 
through  the  pyloric  orifice  of  the  stomach  to  the 
small  intestines. 

This  fluid  is  called  chyme.  It  contains  nutri- 
tious matters  in  a  state  of  mechanical  suspension, 
others  in  chemical  and  simple  solution,  while  a 
third  variety  are  unacted  upon  from  various 
causes. 

Chyme  proceeds  along  the  intestines  by  virtue 
of  the  peculiar  action  of  the  organs.  It  first 
meets  with  fluids  from  special  glands  in  the  vici- 
nity of  the  outlet  from  the  stomach.  Next  with 
those  from  the  liver  and  pancreas  (sweetbread). 
By  constant  motion  perfect  incorporation  is 
effected,  and  the  following  outline  of  changes 
may  be  observed. 

1st.  The    acid   character    of    chyme    is    neu- 
tralized— it  is  now  alkaline. 
2nd.  Albuminous  matters  escaping  from  the 

stomach  unchanged  are  transformed. 
3rd.  Starchy  matters,  unacted  upon  by  saliva, 
are  now  effectually  converted  into  sugar. 
4th.  Fatty  bodies  are  emulsified  or   converted 

into  a  kind  of  soap. 

5th.  and  lastly,  all  the  nutritious  principles 
have  conferred  upon  them  properties 
which  facilitate  their  absorption  and  pas- 
sage through  the  lacteals  towards  the 
blood,  and  the  fluid  mass  now  receives 
the  name  of  chyle. 


28         Elementary  Principles  of  Food. 


Chyle  passes  through  the  lacteals  from  the  in- 
testines. Its  constituents  gradually  form  a 
granular-looking  mass,  in  which  float  a  number 
of  small  vesicles  or  cells.  By  passage  through 
an  assemblage  of  bodies  called  mesenteric  glands, 
the  cells  increase  in  number,  and  at  length  ac- 
quire colour,  and  eventually  are  poured  into 
blood  vessels  near  the  heart.  It  is  thus  the  blood 
becomes  the  pabulum  whence  all  tissues  are 
nourished.  In  the  elements  of  food  are  found 
the  materials  which,  after  assimilation,  partake  of 
the  characters  of  the  tissues  of  the  body ;  and  the 
circulation  of  the  blood  explains  how  each  kind 
receives  its  share. 


ELEMENTARY  PRINCIPLES  OF   FOOD. 

The  chyle  contains  the  whole  of  the  elements 
of  the  food.  These  are  of  a  mixed  character. 
First,  we  have  nitrogenous,  so-called  because  they 
contain  largely  the  gas  nitrogen,  or  albuminous 
principles  which  are  strictly  the  elements  from 
which  muscle  is  developed — hence  the  term 
"  flesh  formers "  which  is  applied  to  them. 
Second,  we  have  fatty  bodies  and  saccharine  or 
sugary  principles — starch,  gum,  sugar,  &c. — heat- 
producers.  Third,  there  are  essential  constituents 
in  the  form  of  salts — of  lime,  potash,  soda,  mag- 
nesia, Sec.  Fourth,  various  acids,  as  hydro- 
chloric (muriatic  acid  or  spirits  of  salt),  nitric 


Essential  Characters  of  Food.  29 


(aquafortis),  sulphuric  (oil  of  vitriol),  lactic  and 
phosphoric,  &c. 

In  a  chemical  point  of  view  the  acids  are 
most  powerful  agents,  and  by  union  with  various 
substances  form  compounds  of  vital  importance. 

Lastly,  there  are  compounds  of  no  service 
whatever  to  the  system.  These  are  principally 
indigestible  bodies,  such  as  ligneous  or  fibrous 
parts  of  plants  and  foreign  bodies  which  have 
gained  access  to  the  digestive  organs,  cells, 
earthy  matter,  and  portions  of  undigested  food 
which  have  been  present  in  excess.  Liebig  has 
termed  these  the  incombustible  and  unburned 
parts  of  food.  They  are  the  refuse  from  the 
digestive  process,  and  together  with  effete  or  use- 
less parts  thrown  off  from  the  system,  constitute 
the  faces  or  dung. 


ESSENTIAL   CHARACTERS   OF  FOOD. 

Certain  conditions  are  essential  for  the  proper 
digestion  and  assimilation  of  food.  When  pro- 
perly understood,  they  indicate  the  principles  of 
an  economical  system  of  feeding  animals  with  a 
view  towards  the  preservation  of  health  and 
vigour  under  continued  laborious  exertion,  as 
well  as  preventing  an  undue  rate  of  mortality 
resulting  from  it,  and  at  a  low  rate  of  cost. 

These  conditions  are,  first,  that  food  should  be 
nutritious ;  second,  that  it  contains  elements  of 


30  Essential  Characters  of  Food. 


a  mixed  character  ;  third,  that  it  possesses  pro- 
portionate bulk ;  fourth,  it  should  be  regularly 
supplied ;  and  lastly,  the  digestive  organs  gene- 
rally must  be  in  a  state  of  healthy  action. 

It  is  imperative  that  food  possess  nutritious 
principles.  This  must  be  apparent  from  the  fact 
that  from  it  all  parts  of  the  body  are  built  up 
and  being  constantly  renovated.  In  order  to 
possess  this  property,  bodies  rich  in  nitrogen  are 
requisite,  which  are  denominated  nitrogenous, 
azotised,  nutritious,  or  flesh-forming  compounds. 
Examples  of  these  are  albumen,  fibrine,  and 
caseine — terms  which  would  indicate  different 
substances.  Chemically,  however,  they  are  alike 
in  composition,  but  exhibit  physically  different 
appearances. 

If  wheaten  flour  be  placed  under  a  stream  of 
cold  water  a  sticky  paste  is  left  behind.  This  is 
called  gluten,  and  is  identical  in  chemical  com- 
position with  the  flesh  of  man  and  animals.  It  is 
the  nitrogenous  or  albuminous  principle  of  wheat 
flour. 

If  an  egg  be  broken  a  glairy  fluid  escapes  from 
the  shell,  which  becomes  white  and  coagulates 
into  a  solid  mass  when  heated.  This  is  albumen 
— gluten  in  another  form,  identical  in  composi- 
tion, and  is  the  nitrogenous  principle  of  the  egg 
from  which  the  flesh,  feathers,  claws,  Sec.,  of  the 
bird  are  formed. 

If  milk  is  taken  and  an  acid  added,  a  solid 
mass  of  curds  is  speedily  produced.  This  is 


Essential  Characters  of  Food.  31 


caserne — or  gluten,  albumen,  and  fibrine  in  another 
form,  supplied  in  the  milk  of  the  mother  to  young 
animals,  and  in  peas,  beans,  &c.,  to  older  ones ; 
from  which  also  hoof,  horn,  hair,  wool,  skin,  flesh, 
and  feathers,  &c.  &c.,  are  formed,  developed,  and 
repaired. 

Lastly,  if  blood  be  coagulated,  the  mass  which 
separates  proves  itself  an  identical  compound  to 
flesh  itself—; fibrine. 

The  whole  then  are  the  various  forms  in  which 
the  elements  are  conveyed  to  the  blood,  as  found 
in  the  food  upon  which  the  animal  subsists.  By 
the  action  of  vital  processes  within  the  system, 
each  assumes  those  conditions  which  in  themselves 
are  vital.  Their  supply  to  the  system  must  be 
constant  in  order  to  keep  pace  with  the  waste. 
Hence  they  are  found  abundantly  in  the  food 
upon  which  man  and  animals  live.  Horses  and 
cattle  meet  with  them  in  the  grass  and  corn 
which  they  daily  consume,  and  man  and  carnivora 
obtain  it  directly  by  using  the  flesh  and  blood 
(fibrine)  of  animals  as  food. 

The  following  table  shows  how  these  substances 
resemble  each  other  in  chemical  composition : — 


Carbon      . 
Hydrogen 
Nitrogen 
Oxygen    . 


Gluten  Caseine 

from  flour,     from  peas. 
Boussingault.    Scherer. 


54-2 

7'5 

13-9 

24-4 


54-138 

7-156 

15-672 

23-034 


Albumen 
from  eggs. 

Jones. 

55-000 
7-073 

15-920 

22-007 


Ox-blood. 

Playfair. 

54-35 

7-50 

15-76 

22-39 


Ox-flesh. 

Playfair. 

54-12 

7-89 

15-67 

22-32 


lOO'O       100-000       100-000     100-000    100-000 


32 


NON-NUTRITIOUS  PRINCIPLES. 

In  addition  to  the  flesh-forming  constituents 
of  food,  there  are  also  needed  others  known  as 
non-nitrogenous,  non-azotised,  or  non-nutritious,  so 
named  in  contradistinction  to  those  which  contain 
nitrogen.  Examples  are  found  in  starch,  sugar, 
gum,  and  fat  itself.  They  are  composed  of  car- 
bon, hydrogen,  and  oxygen,  minus  nitrogen,  and 
are  found  abundantly  in  the  different  varieties  of 
?orn  and  vegetables  used  as  food. 

Their  services  are  required  in  the  system 
equally  with  the  albuminous  compounds,  but  for 
a  different  purpose,  viz.,  the  production  of  animal 
heat,  and  formation  and  storing  up  of  fat  within 
the  system. 

ANIMAL  HEAT. 

In  order  to  render  somewhat  intelligible  the 
principles  upon  which  heat  is  developed,  and 
maintained  in  the  body,  and  the  part  which  food 
plays  in  that  process,  attention  must  again  be 
directed  to  facts. 

Here  it  must  be  understood  that  although  the 
term  "  heat  producer  "  is  applied  to  the  saccharine 
principles  of  food,  it  by  no  means  establishes  an 
isolated  fact.  They  are  not  the  sole  agents  in 
the  production  of  animal  heat.  I  will  attempt 
to  explain. 


Animal  Heat.  33 


To  those  who  have  studied  chemistry,  even  but 
a  little,  the  rapid  development  of  heat  unbear- 
able in  water  previously  cold  is  familiar.  It  is 
a  good  illustration  for  our  purpose. 

A  quantity  of  cold  water  is  taken  in  a  tumbler 
or  other  thin  glass  vessel,  and  held  in  the  hand, 
taking  care  to  grasp  that  part  in  contact  with  the 
water.  Sulphuric  acid  (oil  of  vitriol)  is  then 
added  in  nearly  equal  quantity,  when  by  chemical 
action,  which  immediately  takes  place  between 
the  acid  and  water,  intense  heat  is  developed, 
rendering  it  an  impossibility  to  hold  the  vessel  in 
the  manner  adopted  at  the  commencement. 

The  rubbing  together  of  certain  substances,  or 
beating  of  metals  upon  hard  surfaces,  also  pro- 
duces great  heat.  Here  the  molecular  disturb- 
ance— or  the  alteration  of  position  of  the  ulti- 
mate particles  composing  the  mass — which  ensues 
from  the  concussion  may  not  be  unlike  that 
which  accompanies  chemical  action,  although  the 
means  adopted  to  bring  about  each  may  be 
different. 

It  is,  however,  an  undoubted  fact  that  heat  is 
developed  by  the  chemical  union  of  substances 
outside  the  body,  and  similar  conditions  are  now 
found  to  apply  to  substances  which  are  contained 
within  it. 

There  are  always  met  with  elements  and  sub- 
stances which,  in  contact  with  vital  organs  and 
their  secretions  assume  the  power  of  union  by 
chemical  action.  They  pervade  the  whole  of  the 


34  Animal  Heat. 


tissues  of  the  body.  All  the  actions  essential  to 
life  are  carried  on  at  the  expense  of  the  materials 
introduced,  and  those  which  are  present  as  ready 
formed  tissue.  Their  formation  and  development 
are  attended  with  the  union  and  disunion  of  the 
elements  of  compounds  present,  and  their  waste 
or  decay  is  likewise  attended  with  the  same 
results.  Thus  we  have  a  general  chemical  action, 
and  this  accounts  for  the  equal  state  of  tempera- 
ture throughout  the  body. 

Under  ordinary  circumstances  the  saccharine 
principles  of  food  are  being  constantly  caused  to 
assume  the  form  of  fat,  which  under  passive 
states,  or  where  little  exertion  is  earned  on,  is 
stored  up  beneath  the  skin,  between  muscles  and 
around  various  organs,  giving  the  animal  that 
appearance  of  rotundity  so  much  prized  when 
intended  for  the  butcher. 

If  an  animal  in  such  a  condition  were  caused 
to  exert  himself  for  any  length  of  time,  the  fat  is 
absorbed  and  consumed.  Its  consumption  is  an 
essential  act,  not  only  in  maintaining  animal  heat 
for  the  purposes  of  warmth,  but  as  an  agent 
which  facilitates  the  decomposition  of  other 
bodies  intended  for  the  use  of  the  system,  in  a 
different  manner.  Such  an  animal  becomes  lean. 
His  muscles  are  distinctly  observed  to  be  well 
mapped  out  beneath  the  skin.  The  same  appear- 
ance is  also  brought  out  by  illness  or  disorder, 
and  is  the  process  generally  understood  as  "  wast- 
ing of  the  body/' 


Animal  Heat.  35 


There  are  a  number  of  animals,,  as  the  hedge- 
hog, (hybernating,)  which  during  the  summer 
become  enormously  fat,  and  sleep  throughout  the 
whole  of  the  winter.  In  this  case,  as  no  food  is 
taken,  the  body  maintains  its  animal  heat  entirely 
by  the  consumption  of  fat  which  has  been  stored 
up  in  the  system. 

The  bear  also  disposes  of  himself  nearly  in  the 
same  manner.  It  is  also  a  notable  fact  that  our 
cattle  lay  on,  during  the  summer,  a  great  quantity 
of  fat,  which  is  derived  from  the  plentiful  herbage 
of  the  period.  In  both  these  instances  we  also 
perceive  the  provision  which  is  ensured  towards 
obtaining  the  necessary  amount  of  warmth  during 
cold  weather,  and  when  food  is  either  withheld  or 
not  very  abundant. 

Animal  heat  is  not  maintained  by  saccharine 
bodies  or  fat  alone.  In  carnivorous  animals,  as 
the  lion,  tiger  and  wolf,  whose  diet  is  confined  to 
flesh,  also  the  wild  hunters  of  some  countries  who 
occupy  their  time  chiefly  in  the  saddle,  sufficient 
fat  cannot  be  obtained,  nor  are  saccharine  com- 
pounds forthcoming.  Natural  warmth  then  must 
be  procured  from  another  source. 

Wild  animals  in  their  natural  state,  and  the 
hunters  of  uncivilised  nations,  are  on  an  equality. 
The  habits  of  both  necessitate  much  exertion — 
activity  of  muscle — and  consequently  waste  or 
decay. 

Flesh,  upon  which  they  live,  being  purely  a 
nitrogenous  compound,  would  furnish  none  of  the 

D  2 


36  Animal  Heat. 


materials  for  warmth  under  other  circumstances. 
But  under  active  work  or  movements,  albuminous 
compounds  are  broken  up,  and  the  carbonaceous 
elements  rendered  available  for  the  purpose. 

A  reference  to  the  table  at  page  3 1  will  explain 
how  this  can  be  permitted.  In  farther  explana- 
tion it  may  be  stated,  that  fatty  or  saccharine 
compounds  are  serviceable  only  for  the  production 
of  heat  as  an  adjunct  to  vital  force ;  but  nitrogen- 
ous compounds  are  capable,  by  peculiar  action, 
of  becoming  not  only  useful  for  the  manufacture 
of  flesh,  but  also  for  the  production  of  the  neces- 
sary animal  heat  during  exercise  or  work. 

This  explains  why  animals  in  high  condition 
appear  fresh  and  excited.  There  is  a  necessity 
for  movement  created  in  order  to  consume  the 
highly  nutritious  material  within  the  body.  Wild 
animals  confined  to  cages  are  seen  to  move  about 
incessantly  when  awake.  Here  is  another  mode 
in  which  the  system  endeavours  to  appropriate 
the  food,  and  bring  about  essential  vital  actions. 
Were  it  not  thus,  disease  or  death  would  be  an 
early  result,  from  an  accumulation  of  deleterious 
principles  in  the  blood,  by  which  it  is  no  longer 
able  to  support  the  body. 

Man  and  animals  consume  little  food  when 
the  body  is  covered  by  fat,  and  exercise  but 
sparingly  taken.  The  muscles  are  not  developed 
because  they  are  not  used,  in  fact  such  a  body  is 
not  capable  of  much  exertion,  by  reason  of  that 
•want  of  muscular  development.  It  is  neither  so 


Animal  Heat.  37 


healthy,  and  is  prone  to  disease  in  consequence 
of  the  absence  of  movements  which  promote  vital 
action. 

These  facts  are  well  known  to  practical  horse 
owners,  and  they  in  consequence  always  avoid  fat 
animals  for  immediate  active  work,  and  delay 
until  the  place  is  occupied  by  muscle. 

We  thus  perceive  that  in  feeding  fatting 
animals  and  working  horses  two  opposite  prin- 
ciples must  be  carried  out.  It  would  be  as  absurd 
to  feed  a  hunter  or  draught  horse  on  the  materials 
given  to  the  cow  or  ox  in  the  feeding  house,  as 
to  expect  they  should  replace  each  other  in  the 
scale  of  usefulness  to  man. 

These  facts  dispose  of  the  first  and  second 
propositions.  We  find  that  food  is  nutritious 
when  it  can  minister  to  the  formation  and  develop- 
ment of  the  body,  and  maintenance  against  waste ; 
while  substances  of  a  mixed  character  are  needed 
in  order  to  keep  pace  with  the  requirements  of 
the  body  in  the  production  of  a  necessary  tem- 
perature, and  assistance  in  the  accumulation  of 
vital  force. 

Without  materials  specially  provided  for  the 
latter  process  our  working  animals  would  be  re- 
duced to  the  condition  of  flesh-eating  or  caged  wild 
creatures,  with  this  serious  disadvantage,  the  work 
imposed  might  act  prejudicially,  as  it  would  not, 
in  all  cases,  be  so  nicely  proportioned  as  to  suit 
the  wants  of  the  system,  or  when  taken  in  accord- 
ance with  the  promptings  of  instinct  in  the 


38  Animal  Heat. 


creature  itself.  In  short,  food  possessing  elements 
exclusively  of  one  kind,  too  rich  in  nitrogen,  or 
too  rich  in  carbon,  at  once  proves  insufficient  to 
support  life  in  a  proper  manner  for  any  length  of 
time.  The  experiments  of  Majendie  and  others 
who  fed  animals  exclusively  on  one  of  the  sub- 
stances known  as  sugar,  gum,  starch,  albumen, 
fibrine,  or  caseine,  set  this  matter  at  rest  for 
ever,  and  we  are  thereby  taught  that  the  animal 
economy  can  live  and  thrive  only  upon  food  pro- 
vided naturally,  and  which  contains  all  the  ele- 
ments calculated  to  minister  to  the  tissues  and 
functions  of  the  body. 

The  poor  inhabitants  of  Ireland,  as  well  as  the 
negroes  of  the  Indies,  also  establish  the  truth  of 
the  principle.  The  former,  who  consume  potatoes 
in  large  quantity,  would  exist  in  a  poor  degree 
of  capability  for  exertion,  were  they  not  to  add  to 
this  expensive  and  innutritious  article  of  diet  one 
of  the  compounds  very  rich  in  nitrogen,  viz.,  milk. 

The  coolies,  who  eat  impure  sugar,  receive  with 
it  also  nitrogenous  compounds,  gathered  from  the 
vegetable  kingdom,  and  all  the  eaters  of  maize 
and  rice  resort  to  milk  for  the  azotised  principle, 
caseine. 

Food,  rich  in  mixed  characters,  supplies  the 
necessary  elements  without  disturbing  the  balance 
of  the  functions,  which  occurs  when  too  much  of 
one  kind  is  given  indiscriminately.  All  vegetable 
food  is  of  a  mixed  character,  but  each  kind 
differs  in  the  richness  of  its  constituents.  A 


Bulk  or  Volume.  39 


knowledge  of  this  is  of  great  valne  to  all  con- 
cerned in  the  keeping  of  animals. 


BULK   OR  VOLUME. 

Food  should  always  possess  an  amount  of 
bulk.  Nature  has  not  been  unmindful  of  this 
when  providing  the  nutritious  principles  of  grain. 
The  grain,  or  kernel,  contains  the  nutrition  in  a 
concentrated  form,  and  bulky  material  is  to  be 
found  in  the  husk  or  stem. 

Proportionate  bulk  is  requisite  to  ensure  diges- 
tion. The  stomach  cannot  abstract  nutrition 
from  small  quantities  of  concentrated  food  with 
benefit.  The  digestion  and  solution  is  not 
efficiently  performed,  as  the  stomach  lacks  the 
stimulus  of  contact,  so  essential  to  healthy 
action  and  secretion. 

Grass,  straw,  and  hay  contain  but  little  nutri- 
tion, and  to  ensure  its  abstraction,  bulk  is  given 
to  it  consisting  of  water,  ligneous  matter  (woody 
fibre),  and  salts. 

The  people  of  uncivilised  nations  have  exem- 
plified this  from  time  remote. 

The  Kamschatdales  mix  earth  and  sawdust 
with  the  train  oil  they  use  as  food,  and  in  other 
northern  regions  a  kind  of  bread  is  made  from 
sawdust. 

The  natives  of  Ceylon  use  scraps  of  decayed 
wood  with  the  honey  consumed  as  food.  Among 


40  Errors  to  be  Avoided. 


animals  the  wolf  is  known  to  appease  the  sensa- 
tions of  hunger  by  taking  into  the  stomach  a 
great  quantity  of  mud ;  the  dog  thrives  best  when 
he  obtains  his  food  from  the  ground,  when  it  is 
mixed  with  grit  and  dirt,  and  in  birds,  small 
stones  or  sand  is  constantly  being  swallowed. 

Food  thus  accompanied  is  fully  compressed  by 
the  walls  of  the  stomach,  but  when  adventitious 
matters  are  not  present,  however  nutritive,  it 
does  not  fulfil  the  wants  of  the  economy  by 
virtue  of  its  elements  not  being  extracted. 


ERRORS  TO   BE   AVOIDED. 

One  of  the  great  evils  attendant  upon  the 
feeding  of  horses,  and  even  cattle,  is  the  use  of 
too  bulky  material.  By  it  the  wants  of  the 
system  are  not  satisfied,  the  stomach  is  over  dis- 
tended, and  the  process  of  chymifaction  is  retarded 
by  the  powers  of  the  stomach  being  destroyed. 

The  walls  are  reduced  in  thickness,  and  rup- 
ture frequently  takes  place  from  the  effects. 

Fluids,  however  nutritious,  as  a  rule,  are  not 
so  easily  appropriated  as  solid  food.  No  better 
evidence  is  found  than  where  cooked  food  -is 
served  to  horses.  The  soft  watery  mass  is  too 
rapidly  swallowed,  and  becomes  as  unnatural  as 
it  is  innutritious. 

//  is  an  acknowledged  fact  that  no  process  of 
cooking  or  preparation  will  render  the  food  more 


Errors  to  be  Avoided.  41 


nutritious,  and  there  is  positive  proof  that  a  mix- 
ture of  substances,  boiled  to  a  pulp,  are  not  so 
digestible  as  when  given  in  a  natural  condition  to 
working  horses. 

I  do  not  expect  that  all  who  read  this  state- 
ment will  be  converted  to  the  truth  it  proclaims. 
I  am,  however,  certain  that  in  the  many  places 
where  the  cooked  system  is  carried  out,  there 
will  be  found  persons  desirous  of  successful 
reform  and  amelioration.  To  such  I  have  great 
pleasure  in  addressing  these  pages.  Others  there 
are  whom  no  amount  of  argument  would  con- 
vince, or  practical  demonstration  convert.  Bigotry, 
prejudice,  and  a  stupid  adherence  to  old  customs 
have  blinded  them. 

To  change  is  considered  unmanly,  and,  as 
existing  affairs  have  probably  prevailed  for  many 
years,  unguided  by  either  the  light  of  reason  or 
science,  and  having  tradition  only  for  their  adop- 
tion and  continuance,  alterations  would  amount 
to  sacrilege  or  disrespect  to  the  blundering  system 
which  is  worshipped  with  such  folly  and 
stupidity. 

To  resume.  The  stomach  and  intestines  of 
the  horse  are  not  intended  for  sloppy  food.  The 
whole  arrangement  forms  an  assemblage  of  perfect 
organs  eminently  fitted  for  bruising,  insalivating, 
digesting,  and  appropriating  natural  food,  and 
unnatural  slops  and  trash  concocted  by  the 
device  of  man  is  attended  with  disease  and 
mortality.  Among  horses,  if  we  go  no  further 


42  Errors  to  be  Avoided. 


than  colic  alone,  the  number  of  cases  which 
occur  where  boiled  food  is  used  exceed  those 
where  attention  is  paid  to  the  selection  and 
supply  of  proper  diet  by  ninety  per  cent. 

Cooked  food  is  open  to  grave  objections.  It 
weakens  the  digestive  organs.  It  is  swallowed 
rapidly,  and  the  stomach  becomes  greatly  dis- 
tended, by  which  secretions  are  prevented  or 
altogether  stopped.  Little  or  no  insalivation 
takes  place,  and  the  food  does  not  undergo  those 
important  and  preliminary  changes  which  have 
already  been  insisted  upon.  Secretions,  otherwise 
necessary,  are  of  no  use  with  such  an  excess  of 
fluid  food,  and  if  poured  out  are  too  far  diluted. 
The  stomach  acquires  in  time  an  immense 
capacity  and  the  muscular  powers  are  weakened. 
The  liver  becomes  diseased  and  the  natural 
secretions  very  limited  or  absent.  The  intestines 
now  suffer  from  this  combination  of  results,  and 
colic  becomes  of  periodical  occurrence,  eventually 
ending  in  death. 

The  horses  of  many  firms  with  which  I  am 
acquainted  in  Scotland,  to  whom  boiled  food  is 
given,  suffer  very  frequently  from  colic,  and 
deaths  are  common. 

Where  proper  systems  are  carried  out,  I  have 
known  three  hundred  animals  belonging  to  one 
firm,  doing  the  hardest  work,  kept  in  the  best  of 
health,  and  for  a  whole  year  not  a  single  case 
occurs. 

Mr.  Hunting  states  that  120  pit  animals  under 


Errors  to  be  Avoided.  43 


his   care,,  all  in  regular  work,  continued  for  six 
years  without  a  single  case  of  colic. 

The  bulk  given  to  boiled  food  is  looked  upon 
by  some  as  an  advantage,  and  in  illustration  of 
the  belief,  a  gentleman  remarked  recently  that 
the  food  thus  supplied  to  his  horses  must  be 
more  nutritious  than  other  kinds,  as  it  is  softer, 
partially  digested  to  begin  with,  and  every  twelve 
pounds  put  into  the  copper  are  increased  to 
forty-eight.  It  must,  however,  be  remembered 
that  thirty -six  pounds  of  this  is  only  water.  I  would 
like  to  know  who  can  conscientiously  expect  a 
horse  to  work  well  and  continue  in  health  on  food 
which  contains  three  hundred  parts  of  water  for 
every  hundred  of  spoiled  grain.  It  is  an  injus- 
tice to  treat  an  animal  in  such  a  manner,  which 
deserves  more  consideration  on  account  of  his 
usefulness,  and  whose  better  judgment  would 
enable  him  to  take  water  with  greater  comfort 
and  benefit  than  can  possibly  accrue  from  de- 
ceiving him  to  swallow  unlimited  quantities  in 
the  form  of  a  mess  presenting  such  indescribable 
qualities  and  disproportionate  quantities. 

Cooked  food  for  horses  is  a  form  which  cer- 
tainly has  no  analogy  in  nature,  and  wherever 
dictated,  must  inevitably  arise  from  neglect  or 
total  ignorance  of  the  anatomy  of  the  digestive 
organs,  with  their  physiology  and  the  laws 
which  govern  assimilation. 

To  another  objection  raised  against  the  cooked 
meat  system,  it  is  urged  that  horses  so  fed  usually 


44  Errors  to  be  Avoided. 


drink  as  much  water  as  those  confined  to  the  dry 
meat  or  manger  system.  I  believe  there  is  truth 
in  this  as  a  rule,  but  the  fact  is  not  favourable  to 
the  plan,  and  great  reasons  may  be  assigned  in 
the  large  quantities  of  common  salt  used  in  the 
mess,  which  occasions  an  unnatural  thirst.  Excess 
of  common  salt  taken  into  the  system  proves 
highly  injurious  and  predisposes  the  animal  to 
disease,  particularly  of  a  congestive  or  low  form,  a 
condition  of  unnatural  plethora  being  established. 

The  continued  presence  of  sloppy  food,  besides 
acting — like  bran  mashes — as  a  foreign  body, 
deranges  the  balance  and  harmony  of  vital  func- 
tions generally,  those  of  digestion  primarily  and 
particularly,  and  the  large  quantities  of  nutritious 
matter  which  may  be  present,  having  no  admix- 
ture with  natural  secretions  are  not  rendered 
assimilable.  It  therefore  proves  an  expensive 
mode  of  feeding. 

Nutritious  matters  not  having  undergone  those 
necessary  chemical  and  vital  changes  which  are 
ensured  by  the  secretions  of  the  digestive  organs, 
are  not  in  a  fit  state  to  enter  the  blood.  They 
may  be  taken  up,  but  will  act  as  a  foreign  body 
there  as  they  do  to  the  intestines,  and  must  be 
expelled  or  communicate  disease. 

If  they  remain  in  the  intestines,  diarrhoea  is 
induced  by  irritative  action,  and  horses  so  fed 
void  their  dung  much  like  a  cow.  Such  a  state 
in  this  animal  is  not  proper  order,  and  if  allowed 
to  go  on,  disease  of  some  kind  supervenes. 


Errors  to  be  Avoided.  45 


On  the  other  hand,  if  the  unassimilated  prin- 
ciple gains  access  to  the  blood,  it  is  as  soon  as 
possible  carried  to  the  kidneys,  and  by  them  ex- 
pelled. The  animal  frequently  voids  his  urine. 
It  will  be  frequently  fonnd  to  contain  modified 
albumen,  and  even  blood,  and  this  accounts  for 
the  excessive  number  of  cases  of  diabetes  or 
profuse  staling  and  albuminuria  which  have  come 
under  my  notice  during  my  residence  in  Glasgow. 

Such  cases  are  so  common  that  they  are  con- 
sidered trivial,  and  no  doubt  are,  primarily ;  but 
when  the  errors  of  diet  are  allowed  to  proceed, 
they  become  marked  by  such  characters  as  in  the 
man  wine-bibber  and  gourmand,  or  epicure,  are 
modified,  and  appear  as  dyspepsia,  biliousness, 
severe  headache,  piles,  &c.,  a  tolerable  bloating  of 
the  countenance,  with  enlargement  of  the  abdo- 
men, which  generally  signifies  organic  disease. 

The  horse  when  suffering  from  these  conditions 
is  usually  well  drugged  while  at  work,  and  as  the 
same  kind  of  feeding  is  persisted  in,  medicines 
repeatedly  follow  the  aliment,  the  animal  loses 
condition,  and  we  may  trace  numerous  instances 
of  farcy  and  glanders  to  this  as  an  undoubted 
cause. 

Other  terminations  are  dilated  stomach,  broken 
wind,  congested,  or  schirrus  liver,  calculi  (or 
stones)  in  the  intestines,  recurrent  colic,  organic 
disease  of  the  kidneys  and  bladder,  or  probably 
speedy  death  from  over-distention  and  fermenta- 
tion of  the  contained  food,  causing  rupture  of  the 


46    Advantages  of  proper  Food  and  System. 


stomach,  some  part  of   the  intestines,  or    dia- 
phragm (midriff). 


ADVANTAGES  OF  PROPER  FOOD  AND  SYSTEM. 

My  experience,  and  that  of  others  who  have  de- 
voted attention  to  the  conditions  discussed  in  the 
preceding  section,  clearly  shows  that  the  secret 
lies  in  prevention.  This  is  comprised  in  cleanli- 
ness, ventilation,  care  and  attention  to  the  quality, 
quantity,  and  regularity  of  feeding,  and  due  pro- 
portion of  work. 

The  author  is  old  enough  to  remember  the 
effect  of  a  journey  from  London  to  the  north  by 
stage  coach,  the  character  of  animals  selected  for 
the  work,  and  the  amount  they  were  required  to 
perform.  With  such  experiences  he  has  fre- 
quently paused  to  enquire  how  the  facts  have 
failed  to  carry  conviction  in  analogous  cases  at 
the  present  day. 

In  many  of  the  coaches  which  ran  between 
London,  York,  and  Leeds,  the  horses  were  known 
to  "  do  their  fourteen  miles  out  and  the  same 
number  in  "  six  days  in  the  week.  Their  work 
was  testified  by  the  wear  of  the  shoes,  which, 
made  of  the  toughest  metal,  and  not  unfrequently 
having  an  admixture  of  steel,  were  worn  out  by 
the  fore  feet  in  three  weeks,  and  replaced  on  the 
hind  by  new  ones  nearly  every  fourteen  days. 
Notwithstanding  this,  by  proper  feeding,  care, 


Advantages  of  proper  Food  and  System.  47 

and  ventilation  of  the  stables,  these  animals  re- 
tained their  health  and  usefulness  for  years. 
Among  them  was  a  celebrated  mare,  "  Old  Sal." 
She  ran  in  one  of  the  above  coaches  as  "  off 
wheeler  "  for  years,  was  known  by  all  upon  the 
road,  had  never  been  sick  a  single  day,  and  when 
railways  revolutionized  the  system  of  transit  was 
over  twenty  years  of  age,  and  even  then  "  as  fresh 
as  paint." 

When  the  fly-boats  plied  between  Glasgow  and 
Edinbro'  on  the  Forth  and  Clyde  Canal,  an  old 
mare  named  "  Maggie  Lauder,"  was  stationed  to 
run  between  Port  Dundas  and  Glasgow  Bridge,  a 
distance  of  eight  miles,  the  time  allowed  being 
one  hour.  After  a  rest  of  one  hour  the  return 
journey  to  Port  Dundas  was  made,  and  in  the 
afternoon  she  performed  the  whole  distance  over 
again,  thus  travelling  and  drawing  the  boat 
thirty-two  miles  per  day. 

The  person  from  whom  I  obtained  my  infor- 
mation rode  the  animal  daily  for  seven  years, 
during  which  time  she  was  doing  the  work 
alluded  to  six  days  in  the  week,  "  was  never  sick 
nor  sorry  a  single  day,  nor  ever  had  a  day's  rest 
in  addition  to  the  usual  Sunday." 

When  the  boats  were  superseded  by  railways, 
"  Maggie  Lauder  "  was  sold  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
nine  years. 

A  similar  instance  is  related  of  a  horse  em- 
ployed in  like  manner  on  the  Paisley  canal.  He 
was  sold  at  the  age  of  twenty -seven  when  the 


48  Advantages  of  proper  Food  and  System. 


boats  were  discontinued,  and,  being  "  fresh  as  a 
lark  "  at  the  time,  suddenly  fractured  the  bone 
of  one  of  his  legs  in  his  gambols  while  being  led 
home  by  his  purchaser. 

I  am  aware  that  breeding  will  in  a  measure 
account  for  "  pluck  "  and  disposition  to  work  in 
animals  as  well  as  in  man,  but  it  will  not  stand 
in  the  place  of  ability  under  any  circumstances. 
The  willingness  or  pluck  may  be  always  present, 
but  ability  will  depend  upon  a  condition  of 
strength. 

One  thorough-bred  horse  will  resemble  another 
very  much  in  disposition, but  differ  widely  in  ability 
from  mode  of  living.  Take  the  first  from  the 
green  pasture  and  run  him  alongside  that  brought 
direct  from  hard  dry  corn  and  sound  hay,  upon 
which  he  has  subsisted  months,  and  performed 
daily  exertion.  The  effect  is  easily  perceived; 
weight  or  distance  is  scarcely  an  object  to  him, 
but  the  first  is  blown  or  lamed  before  half  a 
dozen  fences  are  crossed,  or  has  received  his 
death  summons  from  various  causes. 

Harness  horses,  and  horses  used  in  draught, 
require  similar  treatment  to  produce  strength  and 
endurance. 

While  pluck  is  derived  from  breeding,  strength 
is  derived  from  food  and  a  healthy  digestion. 
Corn  and  hay,  transmuted  within  the  penetralia 
of  the  living  organism,  becomes  muscle.  Manure, 
the  refuse  of  digestion  and  the  animal  body,  the 


Advantages  of  proper  Food  and  System.  49 

agriculturist  knows,  nourishes  his  land,  without 
which  he  can  expect  no  crop.  In  the  production 
of  artificial  light,  all  depends  upon  the  supply  of 
combustive  material  and  agents  which  support 
or  promote  the  process,  which,  in  proportion  to 
quantity  and  quality,  afford  a  good  or  bad  kind 
of  illumination.  In  the  warming  of  buildings 
the  maximum  temperature  can  only  be  obtained 
by  instituting  an  operation  of  the  laws  of  com- 
bustion upon  materials  capable  of  undergoing 
that  process,  and,  likewise,  by  the  operation  of 
laws  within  the  animal  organism,  if  we  need 
strength  (force),  it  must  first  be  supplied  in  the 
shape  of  sound,  dry  provender. 

There  is  a  very  erroneous  idea,  at  least  to  my 
perception,  entertained  by  many,  that  where  a 
draught  horse  is  required  for  moving  extreme 
weights  he  should  be  large  and  ponderous.  If  the 
dealer  is  inquired  of,  l<  You  want  weight,"  says 
he.  If  a  friend  be  appealed  to,  a  similar  recom- 
mendation is  given.  It  is  in  this  way  many  r.se- 
less,  heavy-legged,  unsightly,  lugubrious,  and 
slovenly  animals  are  tolerated.  What  these  are 
supposed  to  gain  by  superior  capabilities  in  mov- 
ing weights  they  lose  in  speed,  and  hence  are 
seen  creeping  along  the  streets,  and,  as  occurs  in 
some  towns,  creating  quite  an  obstruction  to 
general  traffic. 

It  appears  to  me  that  strength  is  required,  not 
absolute  weight,  but  a  good  development  of 

£ 


Regular  Feeding. 


muscle.  If  weight  only  is  wanted,  it  would  not 
be  so  frequently  remarked  that  horses  "will  not 
pull  a  sitting  hen  off  her  nest." 

And,  again,  if  nothing  but  weight  will  suffice, 
then  a  lump  of  lead  or  any  inanimate  object 
would  answer  equally  as  well. 

I  would  refer  my  readers  to  Youatt's  excellent 
treatise  on  draught,  and  they  will  perceive  that 
other  objections  are  against  tall  animals  for 
moving  loads,  particularly  on  four-wheeled 
carriages. 

REGULAR   FEEDING. 

It  is  one  of  the  essentials  of  good  management 
that  horses  should  receive  their  food  as  regularly 
as  possible.  Without  regularity,  and  especially 
with  long  fasts,  the  digestive  organs  are  pro- 
strated or  weakened,  and  food,  which  would 
otherwise  be  nutritious,  brings  about  those 
changes  already  described. 

In  coal  mines,  where  feeding  and  work  is  dic- 
tated by  those  who  know  nothing  about  it,  broken 
wind,  colic,  diabetes,  organic  diseases  of  various 
kinds,  calculi  and  death  by  rupture,  are  common. 
When,  on  the  contrary,  attention  is  given,  these 
fatalities  are  rare,  and  when  they  occur  are 
usually  traced  to  other  causes.* 

*  Much  valuable  information  has  from  time  to  time  been  de- 
tailed to  me  by  my  friends,  Mr.  Charles  Hunting,  M.R.C.V.S., 
and  Mr.  Luke  Scott,  M.R.C.V.S.,  whose  experience  in  the 
management  of  pit  animals  is  of  the  most  extensive  character 
in  Britain,  and  therefore  to  be  received  with  respect. 


51 


CALCULI  OR  STONES  IN  THE  INTESTINES. 

The  nature  and  aggregation  of  the  particles 
which  compose  these  bodies  are  not  without 
interest,  as  affording  information  on  the  conditions 
which  are  present  in  the  stomach  and  intestines. 
Calculi  are  very  common  in  the  horses  and  ponies 
of  some  coal  mines,,  and  also  among  the  horses  of 
millers,  general  carters,  and  those  used  in  large 
establishments  where  the  system  of  feeding  and 
work  is  defective. 

Their  origin  is  usually  considered  to  arise  from 
water  impregnated  by  the  salts  of  lime,  which 
are  precipitated  in  the  same  manner  from  solution 
as  occurs  in  the  steam  boiler  or  tea  kettle. 

It  does  not  follow  that  calculi  form  on  the  use 
of  such  kind  of  water.  It  is  also  a  most  noto- 
rious fact  that  from  water  of  precisely  the  same 
character  supplied  to  the  animals  in  two  coal  pits, 
different  results  are  manifest.  In  one,  where 
proper  care  in  feeding  and  work  is  observed,  there 
is  the  greatest  amount  of  health,  but  in  the  other, 
where  systems  are  the  reverse,  and  especially 
when  work  is  excessive  and  irregular,  calculi 
exist. 

That  the  water  draining  from  the  magnesian 
limestone,  and  holding  lime  in  solution,  has  not 
much  to  do  with  their  formation,  is  proved  by 
several  circumstances. 

First:  Many  calculi  which  I  have  found  iu 

E  2 


52         Calculi  or  Stones  in  the  Intestines. 


such  animals  have  little  or  no  lime  in  their  com- 
position, being  mainly  composed  of  mucus,  hair, 
dirt,  coals,  &c.,  closely  matted  together,  and 
known  as  "dust  balls." 

Second :  The  miners  consume  large  quantities 
of  the  same  water,  but  are  not  known  to  suffer 
from  intestinal  calculi. 

Third  :  From  personal  experience  and  residence 
in  districts  where  calcareous  or  hard  waters  only 
can  be  had,  I  have  ascertained  that  calculi  are 
not  more  prevalent  when  system  is  observed,  and 

Fourth :  I  have  found  calculi  to  exist  more 
abundantly  where  water  is  of  the  purest  character. 
Some  of  the  largest  specimens  which  have  been 
obtained  were  from  horses  using  soft  water  alone, 
and  therefore  must  have  another  origin. 

To  attribute  their  formation  to  any  special 
kind  of  water  is  a  false  theory,  and  negatives  the 
power  of  the  intestines  to  remove  useless  matter. 

The  presence  of  a  nail,  piece  of  wood,  stone, 
or  other  hard  substance,  is  also  said  to  insure  the 
formation  of  calculi.  But  horses  and  cattle  meet 
with  these  things  constantly  among  their  food, 
and,  while  many  are  doubtless  rejected  by  the 
sensitive  lips,  others  are  swallowed,  as  proved  by 
their  presence  in  the  dung  during  life,  or  in- 
testines after  death. 

The  origin  of  the  material  which  forms  the 
substance  of  a  stone  or  calculus  is  undoubtedly 
from  the  food.  Hard  waters  may  assist  under 
certain  circumstances. 


Calculi  or  Stones  in  the  Intestines.        53 


They  may  contain  a  large  quantity  of  lime,  but 
the  food  relatively  contains  a  much  larger  pro- 
portion. It  is  a  substance  largely  in  demand  for 
the  wants  of  the  system. 

If  the  animal  is  enfeebled  by  overtaxing  work, 
long  fasts,  and  supplied  with  food  of  an  inferior 
quality,  a  condition  known  by  the  term  bulimia, 
is  established.  This  is  known  by  an  irregular, 
capricious,  and  morbid  appetite,  irregular  bowels, 
staring  coat,  leanness,  inaptitude  for  work,  and 
a  desire  to  lick  the  walls.  Sometimes,  however, 
these  symptoms  are  either  not  well  marked,  or 
escape  observation. 

Under  such  circumstances  the  animal  swallows 
sticks,  stones,  and  rubbish  of  all  kinds,  to  appease 
the  ravenous  desire  within.  Food,  under  these 
conditions,  is  not  properly  digested,  the  secretions 
are  vitiated,  or  altogether  deficient,  and  act  im- 
perfectly. Farther  derangement  occurs,  in  which 
the  liver  particularly  suffers,  and  affairs  now 
assume  an  aggravated  character. 

During  these  conditions  assimilation  and  ab- 
sorption is  not  carried  on  perfectly,  and  the 
mineral  matters  of  food  and  water  are  deposited 
in  the  solid  form,  and  aggregate  around  any 
rough  surface  or  object  which  may  be  present. 

As  the  mass  increases  in  size  corresponding 
derangement  is  continued,  and  thus  secures 
material  for  its  development,  or  the  formation  of 
others — as  many  as  fifty  having  been  found  in 
one  animal. 


54       Objections  to  the  Use  of  Dry  Food. 

Some  time  may  elapse  before  acute  symptoms 
are  observed.  Suddenly  abdominal  pain  arises. 
Symptoms  are  continued,  and  become  aggravated, 
admitting  of  no  relief,  and  the  animal  dies. 

Upon  making  a  post-mortem  examination,  one 
or  more  of  these  stones  are  found  to  have  passed 
into  a  narrow  part  of  the  gut,  and  become 
imprisoned  by  spasmodic  action  of  the  muscular 
walls  which  tightly  enclose  it  on  all  sides.  Some- 
times destruction  of  the  gut  has  occurred,  and 
the  stone  is  partially  or  wholly  liberated  along 
with  the  contents  of  the  intestines.*" 


OBJECTIONS  TO   THE  USE   OF  DRY  FOOD. 

It  is  urged  by  many  persons  enthusiastic  in  the 
feeding  and  management  of  horses,  that  a  change 


*  I  have  succeeded  in  obtaining  a  great  number  of  these  in- 
teresting specimens  during  the  past  sixteen  years.  In  less  than 
twoyeu-s  twenty -six  were  obtained  from  pit  animals,  having 
caused  death,  and  many  more  were  found  in  animals  dying  from 
other  causes. 

Their  composition  was  principally  mucus,  the  felted  down 
from  the  oat,  silicious  matter  and  carbonate  of  lime.  The  last- 
named  substance  usually  formed  the  outer  portion,  while  the  in- 
terior was  filled  by  pieces  of  coal  mixed  with  the  other  ingredients. 
Many  of  these  were  presented  to  the  museum  of  the  Albert 
Veterinary  College,  London. 

Several  fine  specimens  have  recently  been  forwarded  to  me  by 
my  friend.  Mr.  Thomas  Foreman,  M.R.C.V.S.,  Leadgate,  Dur- 
ham, exhibiting  similar  peculiarities.  Of  these  he  has  collected 
a  great  number  from  pit  animals. 


Objections  to  the  Use  of  Dry  Food.      55 

to  a  system  of  bruising  and  cutting  of  food 
gains  only  one  advantage,  viz.,  the  animal  fills 
his  stomach  quicker,  and  is  thereby  enabled  to 
take  more  rest. 

This  property  is  pre-eminently  claimed  in  favour 
of  cooked  food,  and  in  addition,  that  it  is  par- 
tially digested  for  the  animal.  Experience  and 
systematic  inquiry  prove  the  fallacy  of  these 
tenets. 

I  have  shown  that  digestion,  when  properly 
carried  on,  is  wonderfully  rapid  and  effective. 

The  stomach,  being  small,  is  rapidly  emptied 
again.  This  obtains  in  all  horses,  including  those 
fed  on  the  manger  system. 

Every  one  knows  the  effects  of  bran  mashes. 
How  much  more,  then,  must  constant  supplies  of 
food,  supposed  to  be  half  digested  at  commence- 
ment, containing  much  water,  and  being  an  un- 
natural mixture,  act  like  a  foreign  body  ? 

The  laws  of  the  animal  economy  render  such 
results  inevitable,  for  as  quickly,  in  proportion, 
as  the  stomach  is  voiding  the  digestible  portions, 
the  sensation  of  hunger  arises,  and  desire  for  food 
is  appeased  by  taking  in  more.  Thus  it  will  be 
found,  in  opposition  to  the  argument  in  favour  of 
a  half-digested  food,  that  the  process  of  digestion 
is  accelerated,  and  more  is  required.  Such  food 
always  fails  to  give  up  the  whole  of  its  nutrition ; 
the  animal  eats  more,  costs  also  more,  and  gains 
the  least  by  the  method. 

It  is  thus  that  an  equally  long  time  is  occupied 


56       Objections  to  the  Use  of  Dry  Food. 


in  the  consumption  of  food,  and  visit  him  at  any 
hour  of  the  night,  he  will  he  found  having  an 
appetite,  and  like  Oliver  Twist  "  looking  for 
more." 

Rapidity  of  digestion  is  a  provision  established 
by  nature.  If  the  stomach  had  been  from  the 
first  intended  to  receive  the  large  quantities  fre- 
quently placed  before  horses,  or  to  perform  func- 
tions assigned  to  the  teeth  and  salivary  glands  in 
addition  to  its  own,  the  logical  inference  is  that, 
as  nature,  in  her  development  of  all  things,  has 
not  studied  ornament  merely,  the  stomach  would 
have  been  endowed  with  greater  capacity  and 
powers,  and  teeth  and  salivary  glands  in  all 
probability  absent  entirely. 

It  is  also  urged  against  the  dry  meat  or  manger 
system,  that  horses  fail  to  masticate  or  grind  the 
whole  of  their  corn,  that  much  in  a  state  capable 
of  germination  or  growth  passes  out  in  the 
excrement,  and,  of  course,  the  cooked  meat  system 
supplies  this  deficiency. 

During  a  season  of  extreme  scarcity  in  India, 
it  has  been  stated,*  the  famine-hunted  wretches 
followed  the  English  camp,  and  drew  their  princi- 
pal nourishment  from  the  grains  of  corn  extracted 
from  the  excrement  of  horses. 

I  well  remember  an  extensive  firm  employing 
many  horses,  whose  manure  was  objected  to  by 


*  Letter  from  an  Indian  officer  to  J.  Curwen,  M.P.,  quoted  in 
Blaine's  (fifth)  edition  of  "The  Veterinary  Art." 


Objections  to  the  Use  of  Dry  Food.       57 


several  farmers  because  they  obtained  crops  of 
oats  in  places  where  they  were  not  required,  after 
using  it  on  the  land.  I  have  also  observed  the 
heap  of  manure  literally  covered  with  green 
blades  from  the  growing  oats.  How  was  this, 
and  why  has  such  a  simple  circumstance  had  no 
better  effect  than  to  induce  a  system  of  porridge 
feeding  for  an  animal  eminently  unfitted  for  it  ? 

It  was  in  this  wise.  The  remedy  was  sought 
for  in  a  manner  too  superficially ;  and  in  the 
absence  of  an  acquaintance  with  the  principles  of 
management,  the  horse  has  been  compelled  to 
suffer  for  the  omissions  of  others. 

In  such  cases  I  have  known  carpenters,  and 
even  more  unlikely  men  appealed  to  for  informa- 
tion and  a  remedy.  The  system  resembles  very 
much  that  so  commonly  adopted  under  certain 
Acts  of  Parliament,  where  discretion  and  power 
is  given  to  tailors,  joiners,  bailiffs,  policemen 
et  hoc  genus  omne,  to  pronounce  in  a  magisterial 
court  what  is  cruelty  to  animals  in  a  medical 
point  of  view,  and  to  descant  upon  the  patholo- 
gical signs  which  prove  a  carcass  to  be  diseased, 
and  all  this  in  the  teeth  of  an  educated  scien- 
tific witness. 

Such  matters  require  dealing  with  philosophi- 
cally. They  are  not  within  the  comprehension  of 
every  clodhopper,  groom,  and  coachman,  who 
fancies  he  knows  all  about  a  horse  because  he 
cleans  him.  Their  duties  lie  in  the  practical  ad- 
ministration of  the  brush  and  broom,  and  faithful 


58       Objections  to  the  Use  of  Dry  Food, 
j  «/       t/ 


execution  of  all  orders  entrusted  to  them. 
Management  and  dictation  form  no  part  of 
these. 

The  internal  arrangements  of  the  horse  and  all 
domestic  animals  require  the  assistance  of  brains 
not  so  illiterate,  and  if  they  were  properly  sup- 
plied with  such,  the  horse  and  his  master  would 
enjoy  a  much  longer  acquaintance. 

It  is  important  to  us  to  enquire  whether 
oats  or  any  kind  of  grain  are  capable  of  growing 
after  having  passed  through  from  eighty  to  ninety 
feet  of  intestines  subjected  to  healthy  acid,  alka- 
line, and  other  peculiar  juices  which  convert  their 
starch  into  sugar,  separate  and  modify  their 
albumen  and  caseine,  and  dissolve  out  salts,  or 
to  a  temperature  varying  from  98°  to  102°  R, 
occupying  time  varying  from  ten  to  twenty-four 
hours  ? 

I  venture  to  predict  not,  and  to  assert  that 
very  few  grains  will  pass  out  unacted  upon.  If 
such  were  the  case  the  whole  processes  of  masti- 
cation, insalivation,  digestion,  and  that  of  making 
malt  are  but  a  farce,  and  cannot  be  accounted 
for  by  the  present  deductions  of  science. 

The  solution  of  the  growing  oats,  however,  was 
soon  made  apparent. 

The  manger  system  had  been  imperfectly 
carried  on  for  some  time  without  any  alteration 
in  the  size  or  character  of  the  mangers  them- 
selves. These  were  shallow,  narrow,  and  not 
provided  with  cross-bars.  In  this  way  much  was 


Objections  to  the  Use  of  Dry  Food.      59 


wasted  by  the  horses  throwing  out  the  corn  when 
searching  for  better  portions. 

In  addition,  I  entered  the  stables  on  one  occa- 
sion when  the  premises  were  supposed  to  be 
deserted^  and  observed  a  number  of  those  young 
urchins  who  are  always  a  kind  of  sine  qua  non 
about  lorries  and  stables,  carrying  on  a  mimic 
warfare,  the  missiles  in  the  case  being  oats,  ob- 
tained from  the  open  corn-bin  or  granary.  It 
was  afterwards  ascertained  this  had  been  a 
common  practice.  The  successful  remedy  soon 
followed  in  the  shape  of  deep  and  wide  mangers, 
with  iron  cross-bars,  padlocks  to  the  corn-bin 
and  granary  door,  and  institution  of  a  proper 
room  for  mixing  the  corn  and  cut  food. 

That  the  half-famished  Indians  picked  some- 
thing out  of  the  excrements  of  the  horses  I  have 
no  doubt,  and  they  most  probably  resembled  oats 
in  appearance.  Birds,  especially  sparrows  and 
common  fowls,  are  also  captivated  to  make  such 
a  selection  for  their  crop.  But  only  in  outward 
appearance  would  these  abstracted  matters  re- 
semble the  grain  of  oats.  Few  have  trusted  them- 
selves and  their  judgment  in  troubling  in  this 
matter  farther  than  making  the  broad  assertion 
on  the  strength  of  appearances.  A  superficial 
mode,  and  very  delusive  proposition  to  be  circu- 
lated. I  have  tested  the  matter  and  found  it  to 
be  an  error. 

If  the  stomach  and  digestive  organs  generally 
are  in  a  state  of  health  and  order,  very  few 


60      Objections  to  the  Use  of  Dry  Food. 

grains  escape  their  action,  and  the  common  in- 
ference is  that  if  the  horses  of  the  Indian  campaign 
referred  to  really  parted  with  so  much  corn  as  to 
support  such  a  number  of  followers,  they  must 
have  been  fed  in  a  very  imperfect  manner,  their 
digestive  organs  in  a  state  of  disorder,  and  from 
the  loss  of  the  food,  in  a  condition  certainly  not 
desirable  in  an  enemy's  country. 

In  France  the  subject  met  with  the  attention 
of  Boussingault  and  Papin,  who  instituted  experi- 
ments, and  ascertained  correctly  that  the  passage 
of  undigested  grain  from  the  bowels  of  horses  in 
health  is  merely  nominal. 

Out  of  eight  pounds  allowed  per  diem  only 
one  ounce  of  unchanged  grain  could  be  detected, 
and  this  weight  included  moisture. 

The  digestive  organs  generally  should  be  in  a 
state  of  healthy  action  in  order  to  secure  the  proper 
benefit  from  food. 

Under  this  head  there  requires  little  to  be 
written.  I  have  fully  shown  how  disease  origi- 
nates by  false  management,  and  how  waste 
occurs  in  food  supplied  under  such  circumstances. 
It  must,  therefore,  be  apparent  that  those  organs 
specially  set  apart  for  providing  the  fabric  of  the 
animal  body  should  not  be  overtaxed  or  en- 
feebled. If  such  occurs  the  whole  body  suffers 
more  or  less. 

Care  is  especially  needed  after  protracted  hard 
work  and  long  fasts,  avoiding  the  use  of  large 


Objections  to  the  Use  of  Dry  Food.      61 


quantities  of  cold  water  upon  the  contents  of  a 
well-filled  stomach,  or  supplying  too  much  food 
at  one  time.  In  fact  these  precautions  would 
repay,  if  followed,  at  all  times ;  neglect  of  them 
is  a  frequent  source  of  derangement,  and  from 
which  fatal  consequences  usually  succeed. 

Where  a  great  number  of  horses  are  kept  it  is 
far  more  profitable  to  employ  a  person  whose  sole 
occupation  is  confined  to  the  feeding  department. 
Corn,  &c.,  should  be  transferred  to  his  possession 
under  proper  rules  for  mixture  and  use,  the 
quantities  being  accurately  stated  in  documents 
handed  to  him.  In  return  he  should  furnish 
evidence  of  having  carefully  complied  with  the 
terms,  and  his  papers  should  also  afford  particular 
information  as  to  consumption  under  all  circum- 
stances, regular  or  variable. 

He  should  be  a  man  who  will  carefully  notice 
the  condition  of  all  horses  when  brought  to  the 
stable,  and  willing  to  minister  to  their  comfort  in 
properly  regulating  the  quantity  of  food  each 
may  receive  without  injury. 

The  details  of  such  management  require 
special  attention  in  order  to  be  properly  applied 
to  the  various  circumstances  which  obtain  in 
different  establishments.  There  is,  however,  no 
particular  difficulty  beyond  a  willingness  that 
need  be  encountered,  in  order  to  make  the  whole 
safe,  satisfactory,  and  profitable. 

In  the  absence  of  particulars  it  would  be  an 


62      Objections  to  the  Use  of  Dry  Food. 


impossibility  to  attempt  to  lay  down  a  plan  suit- 
able for  any  particular  establishment.  An  out- 
line must  be  framed  on  the  principles  here  given, 
the  work,  size,  and  nature  of  animal,  &c.,  being 
points  of  importance  for  consideration. 


flS 


PAET  II. 

VARIETIES  OF  FOOD. 

THE  food  used  for  working  horses  are  those 
cereals  and  leguminous  seeds  which,  usually 
denominated  corn,  consist  of  oats,  barley,  Indian. 
corn  or  maize,  peas,  beans,  and  tares,  together 
with  hay,  straw,  bran,  and  linseed. 

These  vary  much  in  their  properties  as  well  as 
nutrition,  and  on  that  ground  alone  arises  the 
question  "  What  kinds  are  best,  and  what  pro- 
portion should  be  given  ?" 

An  answer  will  greatly  depend  upon  circum- 
stances, such  as  the  character  of  work  imposed, 
together  with  the  market  price  and  condition  of 
the  provender. 

The  relative  proportions  of  nutritious  matter 
contained  in  different  kinds  of  food  have  been 
ascertained  from  time  to  time  by  analysis,  an 
outline  of  which  is  as  follows  :  — 

T     inn^   ,,«,!«  Nutritious  Fat,  or 

In  100  pounds.  pro'ducers. 


Turnips  ......  1  9 

Red  beet  ......  1J  8J 

Carrots    ......  2  10 

Potatoes        .....  2  25 

Hay    .......  8 


61  Varieties  y*  Food. 


In  100  pounds.                  Nutritious  Fat   or 

matter.          heat  pro  lucers 

Maize,  or  Indian  corn     .12  67 

Oats 14  68 

Barley 18  68  J 

Bran 18  4 

Linseed 24  64f 

Beans 31  51J 

Peas 32  51J 

Tares,  or  lentils     ...     33  48 

Maize  or  Indian  Corn. — By  the  above  table 
it  will  be  observed  that  maize  among  corn  con- 
tains the  least  percentage  of  nutritious  matter, 
and  from  it  we  gather  that  it  is  not  suited  as  a 
principal  article  of  diet  for  working  animals.  It 
contains  a  great  proportion  of  water  and  starchy 
matters,  and  forms  in  consequence  an  excellent 
food  for  pigs  and  fatting  animals,  given  with 
other  varieties. 

Oats  stand  next  in  proportion,  and  by  custom 
have  been  most  commonly  selected  as  a  principal 
article  of  diet  for  horses,  but  prove  very  expen- 
sive as  sometimes  used.  This  is  very  apparent 
on  calculation,  and  results  are  demonstrative  in 
practice. 

A  horse  doing  little  work,  or  what  actually 
only  amounts  to  exercise,  would  be  economically 
and  advantageously  fed  upon  hay  and  oats,  as 
the  demand  for  muscular  power  not  being  great, 
such  articles  form  a  very  suitable  diet,  without 
causing  him  to  become  overloaded  with  fat  and  a 
burden  to  himself. 


Varieties  of  Food.  6  5 


Estimating  oats  to  weigh  421bs.  per  bushel, 
and  costing  twenty-six  shillings  per  quarter  (eight 
bushels),  the  cost  per  week  for  different  allow- 
ances, together  with  the  amount  of  nutritious 
matter  contained,  would  be  somewhat  as  fol- 
lows : — 

Azotised  or 

Pounds  Pounds  nutritious  matter 

per  day.         per  week.  Cost.  in  pounds, 

s.     d.    v 

10  70  55  9-8 

12  84  66  11-76 

14  98  77  13-52 

16  112  88  15-68 

18  126  9     9  17-64 

20  140  10  10  19-60 

In  addition,  sixpence  must  be  added  for  each 
stone  (14lbs.)  of  hay  consumed,  which  yields 
ll'20oz.  of  nutritious  matter. 

Oats  should  be  heavy  in  the  hand,  devoid  of 
thick  husks,  and  short  and  plump  in  the  kernel. 
Good  dry  potato  or  Scotch  oats,  weighing  39  to 
42  pounds  per  bushel,  are  undoubtedly  cheapest 
to  purchase  at  all  times,  and  to  be  preferred  to 
other  kinds  weighing  from  33  to  37  pounds, 
even  when  four  or  five  shillings  extra  per  quarter 
is  paid. 

It  is  no  saving  to  purchase  corn,  especially 
oats,  made  up  to  a  certain  weight.  Some  dealers 
guarantee  four  bushels  of  oats  for  a  stated  price 
to  weigh,  say  160  pounds,  and  when  measured 

F 


66  Varieties  of  Food. 

the  quantity  considerably  exceeds  the  four 
bushels. 

Under  such  circumstances  the  purchase  can- 
not be  as  beneficial  as  if  the  oats  were  160  Ibs. 
natural  weight.  The  inference  is,  the  grain  is 
of  an  inferior  quality,  the  kernel  being  light 
and  the  husks  disproportionately  heavy.  It  is 
always  more  profitable  to  obtain  standard  measure 
and  weight,  as  this  proves  an  important  item  in 
twelve  months,  and  particularly  when  animals  are 
doing  variable  work. 

The  lower  priced  oats  may  answer  well  for 
moderate  exercise  or  work,  but  as  soon  as  the  labour 
is  increased,  or  a  change  is  made  from  standard 
weighing  oats  to  others  of  a  lower  nutritious  per 
centage,  animals  suddenly  fall  away  in  condition, 
and  become  liable  to  disease,  and  in  ignorance  of 
the  real  causes,  are  not  unfrequently  impregnated 
with  a  course  of  useless  and  even  dangerous  drugs. 
It  is  thus  the  expenses  of  feeding  are  obviously 
increased,  as  to  them  are  to  be  added  less  ability 
for  work,  and  an  additional  incurring  of  expense, 
while  the  original  cost  of  the  provender  is  really 
but  a  fraction  below  the  price  of  good  mate- 
rial. 

When  the  kernel  of  oats  is  small  the  husk 
preponderates,  the  former  containing  as  low  as 
eight  per  cent,  only  of  nutritious  matter,  and  the 
latter  no  better  than  straw  itself,  but  for  which 
the  price  of  oats  is  paid. 

Mr.  Hunting  proved  this  by  a  set  of  tedious 


Varieties  of  Food.  67 


but  ingenious  experiments.  He  says,*  "  One 
ounce  of  foreign  oats,  391bs.  per  bushel,  was 
weighed,  the  same  weight  of  old  Scotch,  401bs. 
per  bushel,  and  the  same  weight  of  Tartar  oats 
361bs.  per  bushel.  The  foreign  oats  contained 
1,112  kernels,  the  Scotch  oats,  1,084,  and  the 
Tartars,  1,144.  The  husks  were  weighed.  The 
husks  of  the  1,144  grains  of  Tartars  weighed 
120  grains;  of  the  1,112  kernels  of  foreign  oats, 
126  grains ;  while  the  husk  of  the  1,084  kernels 
of  Scotch  only  weighed  96  grains.1" 

Under  these  circumstances,  horses  fed  upon 
three  bushels  of  oats  per  week,  weighing  421bs. 
per  bushel,  would  receive  1261bs  total  weight,  of 
which  251bs.  would  be  husks,  having  a  value  only 
of  four  per  cent.,  in  nutritious  matter. 

Change  this  to  Tartar  oats  at  391bs.  per  bushel, 
exactly  39lbs.  must  be  extracted  for  husks,  and 
if  the  foreign  oats  are  used,  361bs.  would  be  the 
amount  of  husk  in  the  same  quantity. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  inferior 
kinds  of  oats  are  not  only  remarkable  for  a  pre- 
ponderance of  husk,  but  their  nutritious  matter, 
and  consequently  their  feeding  qualities,  are  con- 
siderably below  the  standard  weighing  Scotch 
oats. 

Similar  rules  should  be  applied  to  other  kinds 
of  grain  or  corn,  and  their  standard  qualities 


*  "  On  the  Feeding  and  Management  of  our  Domestic  Ani- 
mals." p   14. 

F    2 


68        Selection  and  Purchase  of  Gram. 


obtained  from  analyses  upon  which  reliance  can 
be  placed,  and  information  will  thus  be  easily 
obtained  whereby  to  institute  a  system  of  mixtures 
for  any  purpose  of  feeding, 

SELECTION  AND   PURCHASE   OF   GRAIN. 

Most  persons  are  aware  that  corn  should  be 
thoroughly  dry  for  feeding  purposes,  otherwise 
inconveniences  occur  in  the  form  of  indigestion, 
colic,  weed,  grease,  or  loss  of  condition,  &c. 

Besides,  in  purchasing  that  which  is  not  dry, 
or  seasoned,  a  decided  loss  occurs,  which  buyers 
should  avoid  by  securing  a  reduced  price  in 
accordance. 

Owing  to  this,  large  feeders  take  advantage  of 
the  markets,  and  purchase  oats,  peas,  beans,  barley, 
&c.,  as  they  are  aware  that  in  good  corn  the  loss 
by  a  reasonable  evaporation  of  water  is  an  ample 
payment  for  the  construction  of  granaries  for 
spreading  out  and  constantly  turning ;  added  to 
which,  animals  are  kept  in  better  condition,  and 
work  is  less  interfered  with  by  illness  on  that 
account. 

I  have  known  hundreds  of  quarters  of  corn 
purchased  under  such  conditions,  and  with  the 
observance  of  other  measures,  to  be  noticed,  a 
balance  has  been  shown  which  has  cleared  the 
cost  of  keeping  the  animals  for  a  great  portion  of 
the  time,  as  compared  with  the  previous  cost  from 
another  mode  of  feeding. 


Selection  and  Purchase  of  Grain.        C9 


The  purchase  of  grain  should  not  be  referred 
to  week,  month,  or  year,  in  fact,  to  no  period  if 
it  can  be  avoided.  It  is  much  better  to  store  up 
corn  and  ensure  it  being  thoroughly  dry,  than  to 
depend  upon  purchase  when  it  is  immediately  re- 
quired. Many  good  bargains  are  put  in  the  way 
of  owners  who  are  open  to  purchase,  and  the 
profit  obtained  helps  to  improve  the  appearance  of 
the  credit  side  of  the  balance  sheet. 

Where  roomy  grain  floors  cannot  be  had,  it 
becomes  a  matter  of  greater  necessity  that  the 
provender  should  be  dry,  and  of  guaranteed  weight 
and  measure.  Of  a  necessity  also,  a  higher  price 
must  be  paid  for  it,  and  even  under  those  circum- 
stances it  answers  far  better  than  the  use  of  inferior 
kinds.  To  constant  purchasers,  dealers  are  to  be 
found  who  will  endeavour  to  provide  what  is  re- 
quired in  the  shape  of  a  regular  sample,  and  thus 
difficulties  are  greatly  overcome. 

These  principles  have  been  more  understood  of 
late  by  those  who  feed  large  numbers  of  horses, 
and  whose  competitive  kind  of  work  requires  them 
to  study  every  item  of  expenditure.  In  some 
instances  animals  are  fed  inexpensively,  and  pre- 
serve their  health  and  condition  with  remarkable 
benefit  from  the  system,  even  under  much  harder 
work. 


70 


ECONOMY  OF  FOOD. 

The  method  of  economising  food  consists  in 
using  a  variety  of  grain  instead  of  one  kind,  and 
that  exclusively  oats.  Some  have  tried  the 
different  leguminous  kinds  also  separately,  but 
found  them  inefficient  in  economy,  and  even 
injurious. 

A  farmer  of  my  acquaintance  having  about 
thirty  horses,  purchased,  at  a  cheap  rate,  a 
quantity  of  Indian  corn,  under  the  idea  that  it 
would  effect  a  saving  in  the  cost  of  feeding. 
On  the  contrary,  the  health  and  condition  were 
greatly  sacrificed. 

Others,  again,  give  a  preponderance  of  beans, 
acting  upon  the  well  known  fact  that,  being  more 
nutritive  than  oats,  they  must  be  more  economical. 
In  the  mode  adopted,  however,  they  have  proved 
highly  expensive  as  well  as  injurious. 

Linseed  is  also  added,  and  with  pernicious 
results.  It  is  too  laxative  for  general  use  in 
quantity,  but  judiciously  administered  proves 
assimilative,  hastens  the  process  of  assimilation, 
and  assists  in  the  formation  of  fat  and  flesh.  As 
a  nutritious  body  it  is  very  highly  expensive. 

Tares,  which  are  the  most  nutritious  diet  we 
can  use  for  horses,  are  objectionable  as  being 
unpalatable  in  quantity.  Similar  objections  may 
be  urged  against  other  varieties  of  food  when 
exclusively  used,  particularly  in  their  liability  to 
produce  disorder  of  the  digestive  organs. 


Economy  of  Food.  71 


A  mixture,  therefore,  should  be  regulated  by 
special  conditions.  Due  consideration  is  to  be 
given  to  the  nutritious  matter  contained  in  each 
ingredient,  and  as  a  whole,  the  amount  and 
character  of  the  work,  quantity  allowed  to  each 
animal,  and  the  price  paid  at  the  time.  Where 
the  consumer  is  compelled  to  go  to  the  dealer  for 
his  week's,  fortnight's,  or  month's  supply,  this  is 
particularly  needed,  as  there  is  no  room  for  specu- 
lation on  the  rise  or  fall  of  corn,  upon  which 
frequently  large  sums  are  to  be  saved. 

In  estimating  the  amount  of  nutritious  matter 
contained  in  food  of  different  kinds,  and  how 
much  is  required  to  preserve  horses  in  health 
under  their  work,  the  table  given  in  pages  63,  64 
will  be  found  of  great  service.  Practically,  it  is 
answered  by  observing  the  quantity  of  oats  of 
standard  nutrition,  or  other  kind  of  food,  which 
may  be  required  to  keep  the  animals  in  condition 
for  work  and  perfect  health.  The  amount  of 
nutritious  matter  is  then  determined  according  to 
the  per  centage  stated  opposite  each  kind  by 
simple  rule  of  three.  This  done,  the  estimate  of 
nutrition  contained  in  other  kinds  is  observed, 
and  mixtures  arranged,  forms  of  which  will  shortly 
be  submitted. 

It  is  to  be  next  inquired,  will  this  ensure  a 
less  cost  than  is  incurred  by  the  principal  use  of 
oats  ?  The  answer  is  emphatically,  yes,  and  with 
a  greater  supply  of  nutrition. 

I  am  indebted  to  a  gentleman   of  great  ex- 


72  Economy  of  Food. 


perience  among  horses  for  valuable  information 
in  the  feeding  of  his  animals. 

They  are  employed  in  the  town  of  Sheffield, 
which  is  not  unlike  Glasgow  for  its  hills. 

The  work  is  severe,  and  consists  in  removing 
the  heavy  manufactures  of  steel,  stoves,  hard- 
ware, &c.,  to  and  from  the  railway  station. 
Drays  or  lorries  are  generally  used,  and  three 
tons  is  a  common  load. 

In  a  letter  to  me  dated  April  4th,  1864,  he 
says : — 

"  Our  horses'  diet  is  as  follows  : — 

Hay     ....  16  pounds  per  day,  8  stones  per  week. 

Oats    ....  10       „  „  5      „ 

Beans    .  .  .       5       „  „  2J    „  „ 

Maize     .  .  .  4       „  „  2      „  „ 

Bran  ....  2       „  „  1      „  „ 

Total    .     37       „  „          18J    „  „ 

No  loose  hay,  all  is  chopped ;  oats,  beans,  Indian 
corn  all  crushed  separately,  then  the  whole  is 
mixed  with  the  chop.  The  hay  costs  4s.  per  cwt., 
oats,  Is.  per  stone,*  maize,  lie?.,  beans,  Is.  2d., 
and  bran  l\d.  per  stone. 

"  I  always  buy  of  the  best  quality  without 
regard  to  price,  as  I  find  that  the  cheapest,  all 
points  considered.  As  a  rule,  I  greatly  prefer 
English  oats.f  The  harvest  of  1862  was  an 

*  The  hundredweight  is  112  Ibs.,  the  stone  14  Ibs. 

t  I  think  the  term  English  is  here  applied  without  prejudice 


Economy  of  Food.  73 


exception,  and  I  bought  foreign  oats  principally, 
being  in  a  superior  condition  to  English.  In 
addition  to  the  above — which  is  the  winter  scale, 
the  summer  is  somewhat  reduced — we  every 
Saturday  night  give  each  horse  a  mash  of  linseed 
mixed  with  a  small  proportion  of  bran,  boiled 
altogether  and  given  warm. 

"  This  serves  to  lubricate  and  clear  the  bowels, 
and  comforts  the  animals.  I  do  not  know  whether 
that  is  the  cause ;  but  since  its  adoption  we  have 
had  few,  if  any,  cases  of  colic,  or  severe  inflam- 
mation ;  prior  to  the  adoption  of  that  system 
these  cases  were  of  great  occurrence/' 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  these  are  heavy 
horses,  and  we  have  here  also  an  evidence  from 
an  unprejudiced  source,  that  a  considerable 
amount  of  nutritious  matter  is  required  to  keep 
up  the  health  and  condition  of  the  animals,  since 
when  the  inferior  kinds  of  mixture  were  sup- 
plied, in  the  shape  of  oats  principally,  disease  was 
common.  This  I  can  testify,  having  been  in  pro- 
fessional attendance. 

We  are  also  taught  practically  that  a  loss  of 
condition  and  proneness  to  disease  is  brought 
about  by  food  containing  too  little  nutrition, 
when  the  demands  upon  the  system  are  excessive. 


to  Scotch  oats,  but  as  a  distinction  to  foreign  and  inferior  kinds. 
The  writer  is  keenly  alive  to  the  qualities  of  the  various  kinds  of 
corn,  having  had  unlimited  experience  in  the  feeding  and  manage- 
ment of  the  best  draught  horses  in  large  numbers,  and  doing  the 
hardest  work. 


74  Systems  adopted  on  various  Colliery  Estates. 


Suppose  these  animals  had  been  fed  exclusively 
upon  oats  and  hay,  they  would  require  to  con- 
sume weekly  four-and-a-half  bushels  of  the 
former,  and  about  ten  stones  of  the  latter,  in 
order  to  receive  the  same  amount  of  nutrition, 
viz.  31  \  pounds  derived  from  the  mixture 
quoted,  and  which  would  cost  at  the  same  prices 
about  eighteen  shillings  and  sixpence. 

Here  is  also  a  decided  saving  of  three  shillings 
and  sixpence  per  horse  per  week,  by  the  use  of 
the  mixture,  which  only  costs  fifteen  shillings,  and 
with  fifty  horses  would  realize  £&  15s.,  and  for  a 
year  £455,  besides  almost  an  immunity  from 
disease  and  death,  to  which  they  were  before 
exposed. 

SYSTEMS   ADOPTED    ON  VARIOUS    COLLIERY 
ESTATES. 

It  is  by  paying  particular  attention  to  these 
matters  that  so  much  has  been  effected  in  the 
saving  over  former  expenditure,  on  many  colliery 
establishments,  where  the  supply  and  mixing  of 
grain  is  under  the  management  of  the  veterinary 
surgeon. 

Mr.  Hunting,  in  his  pamphlet  already  referred 
to,  has  shown  that  with  the  number  of  horses  and 
ponies  employed  at  the  various  collieries  of  the 
South  Hetton  Coal  Company — all  doing  the 
hardest  work — the  saving  effected  in  ten  years 
amounted  to  no  less  than  the  enormous  sum  of 


Cut  Food  in  Promoting  Insalivation.     75 


£31,876  2s.  7Jd.  by  cutting  the  hay  into  chaff  and 
mixing  with  small  quantities  of  straw,  and  sub- 
stituting superior  kinds  of  beans,  peas,  barley, 
tares,  &c.,  in  lieu  of  oats.  He  also  states  that 
out  of  225  horses  employed  in  two  pits,  during 
six  weeks  between  15th  December,  1850,  and 
24th  January,  1851,  when  the  old  system  was 
pursued,  there  died  of  colic  and  its  consequences 
three  horses  and  ponies ;  while  with  the  same 
number  of  animals  under  the  improved  regime 
during  seven  years,  there  were  less  than  three 
cases  per  annum. 


CUT  FOOD  AS  AN  AGENT  IN  PROMOTING 
PROPER   INSALIVATION. 

The  value  of  this  kind  of  provender  as  an 
agent  in  causing  a  proper  insalivation  of  food  is 
undoubted.  On  this  subject  Mr.  Hunting  is  as 
explicit  as  he  is  full  of  information  regarding  it. 
He  found  that  a  number  of  animals,  all  selected 
as  near  as  possible  with  an  average  age,  height, 
and  common  appetite,  required  much  longer 
time  to  consume  the  same  weight  and  measure  of 
food  cut  and  mixed  in  the  manger  than  when  it 
was  given  in  the  shape  of  long  hay  in  the  rack, 
and  oats  only  in  the  manger,  from  ten  to 
thirteen  minutes  more  being  required. 

After  what  has  been  said  in  reference  to  the 
objects  of  the  teeth  and  salivary  glands  and  their 


76     Cut  Food  in  Promoting  Insalwation. 


secretions,,  it  must  be  obvious  that  iu  giving  food 
in  its  naturally  dry  state,  it  serves  more  impor- 
tant uses  in  the  animal  economy.  And  as  the 
quantity  of  saliva  plays  also  an  equally  impor- 
tant part,  the  use  of  cut  food  is  here  unmis- 
takably shown  to  be  a  very  desirable  proceeding. 
At  the  Helton  Colliery,  Mr.  Luke  Scott, 
M.R.C.V.S.  has  followed  out  most  useful  prin- 
ciples. His  attention  had  been  arrested  in  1851 
by  the  inefficiency  of  the  existing  system  of 
feeding,  and  proneness  to  mortality  which  was 
constant  among  the  horses  and  ponies  employed. 
The  quantities  allowed  per  pay  *  to  each 
animal  employed  in  connection  with  the  estate 
were  as  follows  : — 

Oats  in       Cost.  Hay  in  Cost.  Total. 

Bushels.  £     s.    d.  stones.  s.  £     s.   d. 

Waggon  Horse  .8       160       28  14  200 

Farm  Horse  .     .     6            19  6       20  10  196 

Pit  Horse      .     .     6           19  6       24  12  1   11  6 

Pit  Pony        .     .     3             9  9       12         6  15  9 

It  is  necessary  to  state,  the  whole  of  the  hay 
here  allowed  was  not  consumed.  Much  is  constantly 
wasted  in  collieries  by  being  carelessly  sent  down 
the  pits,  or  conveyed  to  the  stables  in  large  trusses, 
which  come  in  contact  with  water,  dirt,  and 
grease.  The  animals  consequently  refuse  it,  and 
generally  place  it  beneath  them,  sufficient  being 


*  Colliery  accounts  in  the  county  of  Durham  are  made  up 
once  a  fortnight,  when  wages  are  paid ;  hence  the  term  "  pay." 


Cut  Food  in  Promoting  Insalivation.    77 


frequently  gathered  to  make  a  very  good  bed.  I 
have  seen  a  week's  supply  of  hay  and  corn  lying 
exposed  to  the  dust  flying  from  the  pit  mouth,  as 
well  as  steam,  condensing  as  it  falls  from  the 
boilers,  and,  in  common  instances,  to  the  rain 
of  one  or  two  nights  in  addition,  before  being 
sent  down.  The  former  kind  of  unsystematic 
arrangement  was  of  frequent  occurrence  at  one 
pit,  but  no  kind  of  remonstrance  succeeded  in 
effecting  an  alteration. 

Pit  animals  are  usually  kept  twelve  hours  at 
work,  and  in  many  cases,  without  food  and  water* 
or  at  least  without  a  satisfactory  amount  of  either, 
and  seldom  periods  of  rest. 

I  have  known  animals  kept  from  their  stable 
thirty-six  hours  at  a  time,  and  when  complaints 
have  been  made  they  have  been  met  with  a  stout 
denial  from  the  powers  that  be  ;  or,  where  denial 
has  been  useless,  it  has  been  assigned  as  a  cause, 
that  the  veterinary  surgeon  has  not  provided  a 
sufficient  number  of  animals  for  the  working  of 
the  pit,  an  office  which  he  does  not  include  among 
his  duties  without  express  orders. f 

Such  long    fasts  act  very  prejudicially  upon 


*  The  practice  is  not  so  common  as  formerly.  In  some  pits 
it  is  abolished,  but  slumbers  in  others. 

f  Lord  Kinnaird,  in  his  letter  to  the  Home  Secretary  on  the 
Fearndale  Colliery  explosion,  dated  15th  November,  1867,  has 
fully  shown  the  aspect  of  colliery  affairs  when  he  quotes  the 
words  of  the  miner,  who  says,  "If  peop'es  as  knows  dared  to 
8{»eak,  thestf  things  would  soon  be  stopped ." 


78     Cut  Food  in  Promoting  Insalivation. 


the  animal.  When  he  returns  to  the  stable  the 
food  is  seized  and  ravenously  swallowed,  and,  as 
a  consequence,  it  does  the  least  good,  but  is  more 
frequently  productive  of  the  greatest  harm. 

By  a  reference  to  previous  remarks  on  the 
estimate  of  nutritious  matter  in  the  various 
articles  of  food,  it  will  be  found  that  the  Hetton 
Colliery  "old  plan"  of  feeding  was  doubly  ex- 
pensive and  extravagant.  It  was  innutritions 
as  it  yielded  to  the  waggon  horse  (and  others 
proportionately)  one  fourth  less  nutriment  than 
the  mixture  given  hereafter.  It  was  expensive 
because  it  cost  nineteen  shillings  per  week,  from 
its  use  much  was  wasted,  the  animals  were  in 
bad  condition,  and  mortality  great. 

It  was  decided  at  length,  to  allow  Mr.  Scott 
to  regulate  the  system,  which  he  did,  in  the 
following  way : — 

His  first  act  was  to  have  the  hay  cut  in  trusses 
of  sufficient  size  to  fit  a  coal  tub,*  in  which  they 
are  sent  down  the  pit,  and  thus  totally  prevented 
from  collecting  dirt  and  grease  as  before.  This 
resulted  in  a  saving  of  the  amount  wasted,  and 
also  supply  in  a  better  condition,  which  would  be 
turned  to  account  in  the  animal  body. 

The  varieties  of  grain  fixed  upon  to  be  used 
were  bruised  separately,  and  mixed  in  the  follow- 
ing proportions : — 


*  This  plan  is  also  carried  out  at  all  the  collieries  under  Mr. 
Hunting's  superintendence. 


Cut  Food  in  Promoting  Insalivation.     79 


Weight      Price  Actual 

Grain.                    per  bush,  per  qr.  weight.  CV>st. 

Ibs.           *.             Ibs.  8. 

Barley,  4  bushels .     .     56         30         224  15 

Oats,  4           „       .     .     42         26         168  13 

Peas,  2          „       .     .     66         40         132  10 


524  £1  IS 

In  order  to  arrive  at  an  average  number  of 
animals  to  be  fed,  the  ponies  and  horses  in  the  pits 
are  classed  as  follows  : — 

All  above  15  hands  are  called  horses. 

Three  above  13  hands,  and  under  15  hands, 
equal  to  two  horses. 

Two  above  11  hands,  and  under  13  hands, 
equal  to  one  horse. 

Under  this  arrangement  the  whole  were  re- 
duced to  an  average  of  130  horses. 

The  superiority  of  the  system  is  at  once  ap- 
parent by  a  reference  to  the  subjoined  analysis, 
in  which  the  two  plans  are  contrasted. 

Old  System,  for  One  Pit  Horse. 

6  bushels  of  oats  per  pay,  at  3s.  3d.       .     19s.  6d. 
24  stones  of  hay,  at  Qd. 12s.  Od. 


Or  for  26  pays  (one  year)    , 
Nutritious  matter  contained 


SO     Cut  Food  in  Promoting  Insalivation. 

New  System,  for  One  Pit  Horse. 

176  Ibs.  of  the  mixture 14s.  4eZ. 

IS  stones  of  hay,  at  6 d 9s.  Qd. 

?  1  pounds  of  bran lid. 


Total  per  pay     ...     £1  4s.  3d. 

Or  for  26  pays  (one  year)    .     .     .     £31   10s.  Qd. 
Saving  effected  for  one  horse  for 

one  year 9     85.  Qd. 


Cost  per  horse  under  old  plan  .  .  £40  19s.  Od. 
Saving  in  130  horses  for  one  year  £1225  5s.  Od. 
Nutritious  matter  contained  .  .  .  48*18  Ibs. 

In  the  old  system  it  will  be  observed  that 
52-08 Ibs.  of  N.M.  (nutritious  matter)  are  contained 
in  the  food  supplied,  against  48' 18  Ibs.  in  the  new. 
The  greater  part,  however,  was  not  obtained  by  the 
animals  on  account  of  the  excessive  waste  already 
mentioned  in  the  hay,  and  from  the  greedy  man- 
ner in  which  the  corn  was  devoured. 

The  additional  4  Ibs.  of  N.M.  supplied  also 
proved  expensive,  besides  useless,  as  it  was  un- 
available. For  it  the  sum  of  7s.  3d.  per  pay 
was  being  paid,  as  forming  part  of  a  system  which 
engendered  disease,  and  gave  the  animals  even 
less  support,  although  professedly,  a  mode  which 
furnished  a  large  amount. 

It  is  now  a  custom  to  allow  the  pit  animals 
a  portion  of  the  hay  and  corn  during  the  day, 


What  constitutes  a  Cheap  Food.        81 

instead  of  causing  them  to  fast  twelve  hours,  as 
before. 

The  result  is,  Mr.  Scott  has  found  that  the 
food  is  more  leisurely  taken,  masticated,  and 
thoroughly  digested. 

Besides  the  saving  effected  in  actual  expendi- 
ture, the  reduction  of  disease  and  losses  by  death, 
is  an  important  item.  In  repeated  visits  to  the 
animals  in  the  pits  fed  upon  Mr.  Scott's  princi- 
ple, it  is  due  from  me  to  state  that  I  never  saw 
a  greater  uniformity  in  condition  while  the 
hardest  work  was  being  imposed,  and  cases  of 
indigestion,  colic,  and  death  in  consequence,  were 
the  exception,  and  of  extremely  rare  occurrence. 


WHAT  CONSTITUTES  A  CHEAP  FOOD. 

It  is  usually  considered  a  cheap  mode  of  feed- 
ing, when  material  can  be  supplied  for  one  penny 
per  pound,  and  I  find  several  owners  base  their 
calculations  of  cost  at  this  rate.  But  it  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that  food  costing  only  one  penny 
per  pound  is  not  inevitably  an  economical  food. 
We  must  look  farther  than  mere  cost.  Economy 
does  not  consist  in  price  alone,  to  such  must  be 
added  the  veterinary  surgeon's  account,  whose 
services  in  the  main  will  be  found  to  have  been 
occasioned  by  the  supposed  economical  food,  and 
in  addition,  the  value  of  the  amount  wasted  by 
refusal,  fermentation,  or  that  which  is  hastened 

G 


82         Objections  to  a  Change  of  Gr 


am. 


through  the  bowels  in  the  state  of  "  partial  diges- 
tion/^ so  much  insisted  upon. 

Again,  the  amount  of  nutritious  matter  con- 
tained must  be  accurately  calculated,  or  no 
reliable  estimate  of  cheapness  can  be  made.  I 
am  aware  of  several  large  firms  in  Glasgow 
who  believe  they  are  feeding  economically  upon 
one  penny  per  pound  rates,  while  their  food  yields 
ten  per  cent,  less  nutrition  than  the  preceding 
mixtures,  and  cases  of  acute  indigestion,  &c.,  &c., 
are  constant  and  numerous.  These  form  a  good 
comparison  with  the  systems  of  Messrs.  Hunting 
and  Scott,  the  mixture  proposed  by  the  latter 
costing  only  ninety-eight  parts  of  a  penny  per 
pound,  with  a  high  scale  of  nutritive  value. 


OBJECTIONS   TO  A  CHANGE   OF   GRAIN. 

It  is  frequently  urged  that  to  adopt  a  total 
change  in  the  kind  of  grain  used,  is  to  produce 
serious  evils  and  fatal  Disorder,  as  exemplified  by 
animals  gaining  access  to  the  open  corn  bin,  or  to 
a  heap  of  wheat  or  barley,  when  either  rupture 
of  the  diaphragm,  stomach,  or  intestines  takes 
place,  and  death  speedily  ensues,  while  at  other 
times  founders  (laminitis)  occurs. 

These  certainly  appear  grave  objections  at  first 
sight,  but  in  reality  are  difficulties  of  no  moment. 
We  are  speaking  of  systematic  feeding,  not  de- 
liberate engorgement.  Death  or  disease  results  in 


Nature,  Uses,  and  Abuses  of  I$r an.      S3 


one  case  by  repletion  and  fermentation  conse- 
quent upon  the  J Citing  of  an  unnatural  quantity 
of  food,  which,  if  taken  under  proper  principles, 
would  in  the  other  prove  nutritious  and  life  sup- 
porting. The  death  of  horses  by  these  means  is 
fully  carried  out  in  analogy  among  mankind,  with 
the  exception  that  in  the  latter  gluttony  generally 
exerts  itself  a  little  more  slowly. 

In  no  case,  with  proper  caution,  will  evil  conse- 
quences ensue  by  a  change  to  the  dry,  or  manger 
system,  from  any  other.  It  need  therefore  cause 
no  apprehension. 


NATURE,   USES,    AND   ABUSES   OF   BRAN. 

Bran  will  be  found  by  analysis  to  contain  from 
14  to  18  per  cent,  of  azotised  matter,  equal  in 
fact  to  oats  or  barley.  In  nutrition,  however,  it 
is  inferior  to  the  straw  of  wheat  or  barley,  a 
property  which  appears  to  obtain  with  the  husk 
of  grain  generally.  Owing  to  some  peculiar  form 
of  combination,  the  azotised  matter  is  not  liberated 
by  the  process  of  digestion ;  hence  those  who  con- 
sume bread  in  which  the  bran  of  wheat  has  been 
retained,  under  the  idea  that  such  is  more  nutri- 
tious, are  greatly  mistaken.  The  faeces  or  ex- 
crement are  loaded  with  bran  which  has  passed 
out  almost  unchanged,  and  horses  fed  upon  it 
exhibit  the  same  conditions. 

That  an  admixture  of  bran  with  wheat  en  flour 

o  2 


84      Nature,  Uses,  and  Abuses  of  Bran. 


or  with  the  provender  of  horses,  is  useful  and 
even  profitable,  there  can  be  no  doubt.  This  is 
to  be  attributed  to  the  mechanical  action  set  up 
by  the  siliceous  particles,  which  obviates  constipa- 
tion, and  preserves  the  proper  action  of  the 
digestive  organs  when  given  in  a  judicious  man- 
ner. Messrs.  Hunting  and  Scott  take  advantage 
of  this  property,  and  use  it  daily  with  their 
superior  mixtures  of  corn. 

As  a  laxative,  bran  is  justly  called  into  requi- 
sition periodically  as  a  warm  mash  for  animals  in 
whom  there  exists  an  innate  disposition  to  consti- 
pation. I  place  the  action  of  a  bran  mash,  given 
occasionally,  as  one  of  the  safest,  most  natural, 
and  acceptable  adjuncts  towards  the  preservation 
of  health;  which  effect  is  produced  with  more 
benefit  and  less  deterioration  to  the  system  than 
by  any  other  means.  There  are  few  horses  that 
will  not  take  it  when  offered  as  a  change,  and  I 
would  recommend,  especially  in  winter,  that  it  be 
given  at  the  temperature  of  new  milk,  not  cold, 
and  the  use  of  it  should  not  be  insisted  upon  in- 
discriminately, or  ill  effects  are  speedily  shown. 

Nothing  can  be  more  anomalous  than  the 
opinion  entertained  on  the  use  of  bran,  as  it  ob- 
tains in  many  quarters.  Believed  to  be  non- 
nutritious,  it  is  given  largely  during  disease,  to 
ward  off  critical  inflammation,  which  a  diet  of  corn 
might  increase,  but  why  it  is  persisted  in  with 
animals  suffering  from  general  prostration  and 
weakening  complaints  is  quite  paradoxical. 


System  at  the  Londonderry  Collieries.    85 


It  too  often  occurs  also,,  when  no  appetite 
exists,  it  is  paraded  continually  before  the  creature, 
and  lies  in  the  manger  fouling  the  wood- work 
by  fermentation,  which  the  animal  shows  his  re- 
pugnance to  by  standing  as  far  back  as  his  chain 
will  allow. 

SYSTEM  PURSUED  AT  THE  LONDONDERRY 
COLLIERIES. 

The  horses  and  ponies  employed  at  the 
collieries  of  the  late  Marchioness  of  Londonderry 
(now  Earl  Vane's),  during  my  appointment  as 
Veterinary  Surgeon  to  her  Ladyship,  and  subse- 
quently for  a  short  period  to  the  Earl,  were  fed 
upon  oats  and  peas — five  parts  of  the  former  to 
one  of  the  latter.  The  mixture  was,  however, 
never  regulated  by  weighing.  It  was  quite  of  an 
extemporary  character,  and  entire  guess  work,  a 
dash  of  peas  being  hastily  put  into  the  bottom  of 
a  "poke"  and  afterwards  covered  to  the  top  with 
bruised  oats,  and  the  whole  then  weighed.  In 
addition,  hay,  and  green  food  in  summer,  was 
allowed,  the  cost  of  which  I  find  by  returns  in 
my  possession,  amounted  to  £\  3s.  lOJc?.  per 
horse  per  pay,  all  ponies  being  classed  as  two 
equal  to  one  horse. 

Under  this  arrangement  106  horses  and  322 
ponies  exclusively  employed  in  producing  coal, 
and  of  course  below  ground  principally,  would  in 
round  numbers  give  267  horses,  the  cost  of  feed- 
ing each  being  £31  Os.  9d.  per  annum. 


86    System  at  the  Londonderry  Collieries. 

At  first  sight  this  appears,  and  is  really  believed 
to  be  a  very  economical  rate  of  feeding,  being 
lower  than  Mr.  Scott's  expenditure  at  Hetton-le- 
hole.  Quality,  however,  is  the  test  of  cheapness, 
not  the  price  alone  at  which  the  food  is  supplied. 
This  allowance  yields  not  more  than  37'52  pounds 
of  nutritious  matter — assuming  the  one  part  of 
peas  are  carefully  added,  which  I  have  grave 
reasons  to  doubt — against  48'18  in  Mr.  Scott's 
feed,  in  which  10' 6  ft  Ibs.  extra  are  supplied  each 
pay  per  horse  during  the  year,  for  which  he  in- 
curs a  cost  only  of  9s.  9d.,  the  difference  per 
horse  per  year. 

But,  as  in  the  case  of  the  old  system  at  Hetton- 
le-hole,  the  animals  do  not  derive  the  whole  of 
even  this  limited  amount  of  benefit  from  the  corn 
allowed.  In  winter  steamed  food,  consisting  of 
hay,  linseed,  and  the  one-fifth  part  of  peas  ab- 
stracted from  the  mixture,  are  supplied.  This  is 
sent  down  the  pits  during  the  afternoon,  and 
frequently  before  the  animals  reach  the  stable  in 
which  the  mess  has  been  deposited  by  the  horse- 
keeper,  I  have  found  it  undergoing  fermentation. 
Some,  in  fact  many,  of  the  animals  refused  it  even 
when  fresh,  and  from  these  causes  the  most  nutri- 
tious portions  were  lost  to  them. 

The  process  of  steaming  was  conducted  at 
separate  places  contiguous  to  a  number  of  col- 
lieries, and  the  food  conveyed  in  boxes  or  coal- 
tubs  placed  in  carts,  and  throughout  the  distance 
a  dark-coloured  fluid  drained  in  profusion,  of 


System  at  the  Londonderry  Collieries.     8? 

course  carrying  with  it  some  of  the  most  useful 
soluble  principles  of  the  food.* 

The  process  of  steaming  food  may  answer  well 
where  inferior  food  and  hay  abound,  cattle  are 
to  be  fed,  and  aged  dependants  require  some 
light  employment.  But  as  applied  to  good  food, 
and  carried  out  in  the  manner  alluded  to,  it  is  a 
complete  farce,  a  useless  addition  to  expenditure 
— which,  by  the  bye,  is  not  made  to  appear  in 
connection  with  the  feeding — and  deprivation  to 
the  hard-working  animals.  In  fact,  the  whole 
system  of  feeding  is  no  better,  hence  the  number 
of  cases  of  colic  and  indigestion,  rapid  falling 
away  in  condition,  diabetes,  &c,,  &c.,  which  occur, 
and  not  being  required  to  be  reported  at  head- 
quarters nothing  is  known  of  them.  But  if  the 
gentlemen  who  attempt  to  feed  horses  without 
visiting  them  at  their  work  or  in  their  stables, 
and  others  who  rule  with  pens  and  ink  in  a  com- 
fortable office,  had  to  ride  off  at  all  hours  in  all 
kinds  of  weather  three,  six,  eight,  or  ten  miles, 
descend  a  coal-mine,  remain  in  the  heated  at- 
mosphere several  hours,  and  take  the  place  of 
their  coachman  outside  the  conveyance  in  the 
cold  night  air,  after  influences  equal  to  a  severe 

*  In  a  visit  to  a  large  estate  owned  by  a  noble  earl,  where 
feeding  is  supposed  to  be  conducted  upon  scientific  principles, 
steamed  food  forms  a  large  item  for  cattle.  After  the  process  is 
carried  sufficiently  far  the  food  is  removed,  and  the  fluid  accu- 
mulated from  the  condensed  steam,  containing  useful  soluble 
matters,  is  allowed  to  drain  away  in  the  gutter,  while  the  ani- 
mals are  supplied  with  water  for  drinking.  Cui  bono  1 


88    System  at  the  Londonderry  Collieries. 


vapour  bath,  each  would  perceive  the  advisability 
of  reform.  As  such  irregularities  are  in  a  coalpit 
hundreds  of  feet  below  the  surface,,  they  do  not 
see,  and  it  is  very  useful  to  be  determined  not  to  see. 

With  the  exercise  of  common  knowledge  a 
man  may  be  expert  at  purchasing  corn,  and 
make  good  bargains,  but  it  requires  a  little 
more  than  that  to  adapt  a  proper  system  to  the 
constantly  varying  wants  of  a  large  number  of 
animals.  If  the  principles  of  dieting  and 
management  require  no  more  philosophy,  and 
can  be  conducted  with  success  without  presence 
or  information,  the  sooner  such  gentlemen  take 
up  also  the  treatment  of  disease  by  a  system  of 
telegraphy  the  better,  and  probably  they  may 
then  make  both  ends  meet  still  more  satisfactorily 
to  themselves. 

From  a  strict  examination  of  all  phases  and 
conditions,  as  they  exist  on  that  estate  in  com- 
mon with  many  others,  a  more  highly  nutritious 
diet  can  be  guaranteed — a  reduction  of  disease 
and  mortality  therefrom  to  a  minimum  by  the 
exercise  of  care  and  watchfulness,  and  these  with 
a  saving  of  hundreds  of  pounds  annually. 

The  principle  is  of  easy  calculation.  In  large 
numbers,  say  three  or  four  hundred  animals,  if 
two  or  three  shillings  only  per  week  can  be  saved, 
it  is  a  large  sum  at  the  end  of  the  year.  With 
other  agencies  it  may  also  be  increased.  But  on 
collieries  there  are  objections  to  figures,  except 
when  they  are  used  by  the  powers  that  be,  and 


Other  Forms  of  Admixture.  89 


reports,  although  desired,  are  as  waste  paper. 
Like  the  phoenix,  however,  these  may  rise  from 
their  ashes,  and,  under  another  name,  with  an 
official  envelope,  appear  as  new  and  original 
creatures  altogether. 

In  leaving  this  part  of  the  subject,  I  would 
enquire  how  it  is  possible  for  a  pit  horse  of 
fifteen  or  sixteen  hands,  with  his  large  muscular 
system — doing  from  twenty  to  thirty  miles  a  day, 
drawing  a  train  of  coal  tubs,  one  way  empty  the 
other  laden  with  many  tons,  in  a  highly  heated 
and  dusty  atmosphere,  and  perspiring  freely — 
to  obtain  sufficient  nutriment  from  an  allowance 
of  twelve  pounds  of  oats  per  day.  The  same  is 
allowed  to  many  carriage  horses,  and  those  of  our 
cavalry  regiments  receive  it  within  a  fraction,  for 
which  exertion  amounting  to  heal  thy  and  necessary 
exercise  only,  compared  with  the  work  of  a  pit 
horse,  is  exacted. 

OTHER  FORMS   OF    ADMIXTURE. 

I  have  shown  that  nutritious  mixtures  of  corn 
may  be  used  with  great  advantage  at  a  low  cost. 
Their  use  and  application  should  be  guided  by 
existing  circumstances. 

Animals  should  be  selected  as  much  as  possible 
from  an  average  class,  character,  and  age ;  but 
an  intelligent  overlooker  would  soon  be  able  to 
perceive,  even  among  a  mixed  class  where  any 
differences  existed,  and  modification  is  required. 


90  Other  Forms  of  Admixture. 

Some  would  need  a  little  more  food  than  others 
— particularly  aged  ones — while  there  are  others 
whose  assimilative  powers  being  more  active, 
would  derive  more  nutrition  even  from  a  little 
less  food,  and  thus  spare  a  trifle  to  their  less 
endowed  neighbours. 

In  the  studs  under  the  care  of  Mr.  Hunting 
at  South  Hetton,  Murton,  Rhyhope,  Trimdon 
Grange,  Seaton  Delaval,  &c.,  &c.,  and  Mr.  Scott, 
in  the  old  Hetton  Collieries,  animals  of  all  ages 
are  to  be  found,  and,  by  the  system  carried  out, 
are  equally  well  provided  for. 

If,  owing  to  the  severity  of  the  work,  a  more 
nutritious  diet  is  called  for,  it  will  be  found  in 
the  forms  as  follow,  which  provide  it  at  an  equally 
cheap  rate. 


Mixture  No.  1  (Low  rates). 

Weight. 
Ibs. 

Cost. 
£    s.     d. 

Peas      4  bushels 

.     .     264 

100 

Barley  4       „ 
Oats      3       „ 
Bran*  .... 

.     .     224 
.     .     126 

98 

15     0 
9     9 
4     1 

712          £2     8  10 

This  mixture,  divided  among  seven  horses 
during  one  week,  would  allow  each  over  14J 
pounds  per  day,  at  a  cost  of  6s.  life?.,  out  of 
which  20*14  Ibs.  of  N.M.  (nutritious  matter) 


*  The  nitrogenous  principle  of  bran  is  not  calculated  in  these 
mixtures  for  reasons  stated  on  page  83. 


Of  her  Forms  of  Admix tu-re.  91 


would  be  obtained.  Divided  among  six  horses 
each  would  cost  8s.  l^d.,  and  obtain  23*63  Ibs. 
of  N.M. 

Divided   among   five   horses,   each  would   cost 
9s.  9d.,  and  obtain  28-36  Ibs.  of  N.M. 

Mixture  No.  2. 

Weight. .  Cost. 

Ibs.  £    8.     d. 

Peas      4  bushels     .     .     264  100 

Barley  4       „           .     .     224  15     0 

Tares    1       „          .     .       67  5     41 

Oats     1       „          .     .       42  39 

Bran                                      98  41 


695          £2     8     2J 

Divided  among  seven  horses,  each  would  receive 
over  99  Ibs.  per  weok,  costing  6*.  lOJ^.,  and 
obtain  21-65  Ibs.  N.M. 

Six  horses  would  receive  115J  Ibs.  each,  costing 
8s.,  and  obtain  25'26'lbs.  N.M. 

Five  horses  would  receive  ]  39  Ibs.  each,  costing 
9s.  !\d.,  and  obtain  30-31  Ibs.  N.M. 


Cost. 

£    s.    d. 

100 

15     0 

10     9 

4     1 


720         £2     9  10 


Mixture  No.  3. 

Weight. 

Ibs. 

Peas      4 

bushels     .     .264 

Barley  4 

.     .     224 

Tares    2 

.     .     134 

Bran 

98 

92  Other  Forms  of  Admixture. 


Divided  among  seven  horses,  each  would 
receive  over  102  Ibs.  per  week,  costing  7s.  l^d., 
and  obtain  23'86  Ibs.  N.M. 

Six  horses  would  receive  120  Ibs.,  costing 
85.  3Jd.,  and  obtain  27'84  Ibs.  N.M. 

Five  horses  would  receive  124  Ibs.,  costing 
9s.  lljd.,  and  obtain  33  40  Ibs.  N.M. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  good  hay  yields 
five  per  cent,  of  N.M.  which  must  be  added  to 
the  above  for  the  quantity  used. 

It  will  also  be  observed  that  peas  are  named 
in  the  foregoing  mixtures  to  the  exclusion  of 
beans.  They  are  not  so  productive  of  consti- 
pation as  beans,  which  on  that  account  enables  us 
to  use  them  with  greater  freedom.  Beans  are, 
however,  unobjectionable  when  used  with  oats 
and  bran,  chaff,  &c.,  in  sufficient  quantities. 
Prices  must  regulate  these  mixtures  from  time  to 
time,  due  consideration  being  paid  to  the  N.M. 
contained  in  the  various  kinds  of  grain. 

When  the  prices  of  grain  are  much  increased, 
such  mixtures  as  the  following  must  be  taken, 
and  will  be  found  adequate  at  an  equally  low 
cost. 

From  the  Field  of  21st  September,  1867,  we 
learn  the  prices  current  at  Mark  Lane  were,  for 
oats,  35^. ;  barley,  43s.  ;  peas,  43s. ;  beans,  44s. 
per  quarter  of  eight  bushels,  and  tares,  7s.  per 
bushel.  Bran  cost  at  that  time  6s.  per  cwt.  of 
eight  bushels. 


Other  Forms  of  Admixture.  93 


Mixture  No.  4  (High  rates). 

Weight.  Cost. 

Ibs.  £    s.      d. 

Peas      6  bushels     .     .     396  1  12     3 

Beans   4       „          .     .     264  120 

Tares    2       „           .     .     134  14     0 

Barley  1        „           .     .       56  56 

Bran 112  60 


962          £3  19     9 


Divided  among  twelve  horses,  each  would  receive 
80  Ibs.    per    week,   costing  6s.   7%d.,  furnishing 


Eleven  horses  would  receive  87  J  Ibs.  each, 
costing  7s.  3d.,  and  obtain  23J  Ibs.  N.M. 

Ten  horses  would  receive  96  Ibs.  each,  costing 
7s.  llfrf.,  and  obtain  25f  Ibs.  N.M. 

Nine  horses  would  receive  106J  Ibs.,  costing 
8s.  9Jc?.,  and  obtain  28J  Ibs.  of  N.M. 

Eight  horses  would  receive  120  Ibs.  each, 
costing  9s.  ll±d.,  and  obtain  32|  Ibs.  of  N.M. 


Mixture  No.  5. 

Weight.  Cost. 

Ibs.  £    s.     d. 

Beans   4  bushels     .     .     264  120 

Peas      4       „           .     .     264  116 

Tares    2       „           .     .     134  14     0 

Oats      1       „           .     .       42  4     4J 

Bran    ,                                112  6     0 


816          £3     7  10| 


94  Other  Forms  of  Admixture. 


Ten  horses  would  each  receive  81 J  Ibs.,  costing 
6s.  9Jd.,  and  obtain  21  Ibs.  N.M. 

Nine  horses  would  each  receive  90^  Ibs.,  cost- 
ing 7s.  6%d.,  and  obtain  23J  Ibs.  of  N.M. 

Eight  horses  would  each  receive  102  Ibs.,  cost- 
ing 8s.  6d.,  and  obtain  26^  Ibs.  of  N.M. 

Seven  horses  would  each  receive  10GJ  Ibs., 
costing  9s.  S^d.y  and  obtain  3Q|  Ibs.  of  N.M. 

Mixture  No.  6. 

Weight.  Cost. 

Ibs.  £     s.     d. 

Beans    4  bushels     .     .     264  120 

Peas      4       „          .     .     264  116 

Barley  3       „          .     .     168  0  16     lj 

Tares    2       „          .     .     134  0  14     0 

Bran  112  060 


942  £3  19     1\ 

Twelve  horses  would  receive  per  week  each, 
78Jlbs.,  costing  6s.  7%d.,  and  obtain  19f  Ibs.  N.M. 

Eleven  horses  would  receive  each  85f  Ibs., 
costing  7s.  2f  d.,  and  obtain  21  £  Ibs.  N.M. 

Ten  horses  would  receive  each  94  Ibs.,  costing 
7s.  llid.,  and  obtain  23f  Ibs.  N.M. 

Nine  horses  would  receive  each  104  Ibs.,  cost- 
ing 8s.  9d.,  and  obtain  26  Ibs.  N.M. 

Eight  horses  would  receive  each  117J  Ibs., 
costing  9s.  llftf.,  and  obtain  29 J  Ibs.  of  N.M. 

Seven  horses  would  receive  each  134J  Ibs., 
costing  11s.  4±d.,  and  obtain  33|  Ibs.  of  N.M. 


Oilier  Forms  of  Admixture.  95 


The  present  prices  of  grain,  &c.  (February, 
1871),  afford  the  means  of  suitable  contrast  with 
the  foregoing.  By  using  the  following  mixtures, 
actual  cost  need  not  be  increased. 

Mixture  No.  7. 

Weight.  Cost. 

Ibs.  £      s.    d. 

Peas      8  bushels     .     .     504  200 

Beans    4        „         .     .     252  160 

Barley  4        „         .     .     200  0  15     0 

Oats      4                            152  0  12     0 


1108          £4  13     0 

Fourteen  horses  would  receive  79  Ibs.  per  week, 
at  a  cost  of  6s.  l^d.  each,  yielding  21  Ibs.  of 
nutritious  matter. 

Thirteen  horses  would  receive  85  Ibs.,  at  a 
cost  of  7s.  2d.,  yielding  22}  Ibs.  N.M. 

Twelve  horses  would  receive  92  J  Ibs.,  at  a  cost 
of  7s.  9d.,  yielding  24}  Ibs.  of  N.M. 

Eleven  horses  would  receive  100  Ibs.,  at  a 
cost  of  8s.  5%d.,  yielding  27  Ibs.  N  M. 

Ten  horses  would  receive  11  Of  Ibs.,  at  a  cost 
of  9s.  3Jd.,  yielding  29}  Ibs.  N.M. 

Mixture  No.  8. 

Weight.  Cost. 

Ibs.  £      s.     d. 

Peas      8  bushels     .     .     504  200 

Barley  4      „  .     .     200  0  15     0 

Oats      4      „          .     .     152  0  12     0 

856          £370 


96  Other  Forms  of  Admixture. 


Tea  horses  would  receive  85  Ibs.  per  week,  at 
a  cost  of  6s.  8Jo?.  each,  yielding  21  Ibs.  N.M. 

Nine  horses  would  receive  95  Ibs.,  at  a  cost  of 
7s.  o^d.,  yielding  24  Ibs.  N.M. 

Eight  horses  would  receive  107  Ibs.,  at  a  cost 
of  8s.  4Jrf.,  yielding  27  Ibs.  N.M.* 

It  remains  only  to  be  added  that  by  a  careful 
estimate  of  the  prices  of  grain  and  leguminous 
seeds,  together  with  the  relative  amounts  of 
nutritious  matter  contained  in  each,  it  is  possible 
to  vary  the  mixture  in  such  manner  as  the  fore- 
going, that,  notwithstanding  the  excessive  fluc- 
tuations of  markets,  the  cost  of  each  animal  per 
week  for  corn  will  not  vary  throughout  the 
entire  year  more  than  a  few  pence. 

The  bulk  will,  however,  be  somewhat  less, 
and  requires  to  be  made  up  by  the  use  of  hay, 
or  hay  and  straw  chaff. 

As  these  mixtures  are  designed  for  hard- 
working animals  only,  it  will  be  almost  un- 
necessary after  what  has  been  said  when  speak- 
ing of  animal  heat,  &c.,  to  state  that  such  food 
will  prove  pre-eminently  injurious  to  idle  animals, 
except  given  in  very  small  quantities.  To  those 
doing  no  work  or  light  exercise,  oats  are  decidedly 
the  safest  article  of  diet. 


*  In  feeding  horses  upon  oats  only,  weighing  38  Ibs.  per 
bushel,  costing  24s.  per  quarter,  each  must  consume  5  bushels 
weekly,  at  a  cost  of  15s.,  in  order  to  derive  the  same  nutrition  as 
htTe  afforded  by  a  mixture  of  27  Ibs.  per  day,  at  a  cost  of  8s.  4gC?. 
per  week. 


97 


GREEN  FOOD. 

Among  hard- working  horses,  I  have  found  the 
use  of  green  food  too  indiscriminately  adopted, 
and  it  frequently  proves  as  injurious  as  a  mass  of 
cooked  food. 

That  it  is  useful  and  beneficial  I  fully  be- 
lieve, but  this  occurs  under  proper  management. 
When  given,  it  should  by  no  means  take  the  place 
of  corn.  This  is,  however,  too  commonly  done, 
the  animal  being  allowed  too  much. 

He  then  perspires  freely,  becomes  weak  and 
liable  to  disease.  I  have  known  for  years  that 
among  town  cart  and  cab  horses  to  whom  grass 
has  been  allowed  as  described,  sore  throats  and 
influenza  have  appeared  almost  simultaneously 
with  its  use,  besides  colic,  weed,  &c.,  &c. 

Two  or  three  weeks'  feeding  while  the  plants 
are  young  may  answer  for  easily  wrought 
horses,  but  in  my  opinion  that  state  of  the 
animal's  body  which  we  term  condition  should 
not  be  so  trifled  with.  Aptitude  for  work  is 
iiot  a  condition  which  is  obtained  in  a  few 
days  or  hours.  It  is  only  obtained  during 
weeks,  and  at  considerable  expense.  Most  per- 
sons know,  or  at  least  presume  to  know,  what 
training  the  racer  requires,  and  how  long  a 
hunter  is  in  being  got  ready  for  the  field; 
yet  we  find  the  same  people  sacrifice  the  con- 
dition of  a  draught  horse  during  a  season 

H 


98  Green  Food. 


when  he  requires  the  greatest  strength,  by  the 
supply  of  an  innutritions  and  watery  food. 

I  maintain,  if  horses  are  in  condition  and 
required  for  work,  that  green  food  is  an  inter- 
ruption to  the  formation  and  maintenance  of 
muscle,  and  it  should  be  avoided.  If  he  requires 
rest,  green  food  will  be  serviceable  ;  and,  like  his 
more  favoured  master,  he  should  be  allowed  a  trip 
to  the  country,  where,  in  a  roomy  loose  box  or 
covered  yard,  he  can  enjoy  the  green  fruits  of  the 
earth,  which  are  regularly  mown  and  brought  to 
him,  protected  from  the  rays  of  a  scorching 
summer  sun,  or  the  pelting  rains  that  fall,  and 
flies  which  torment  at  this  season. 

When  these  conditions  are  not  fulfilled,  green 
food  proves  expensive  and  unprofitable.  The 
animal  loses  condition  and  is  below  the  standard 
for  work,  while  he  becomes  peculiarly  liable  to 
disease,  and  exhibits  the  greatest  difficulty  in 
taking  on  flesh,  appearing  lean,  hide  bound,  and 
generally  betokening  want  of  power  and  activity. 

Similar  remarks  apply  to  the  use  of  turnips  or 
carrots.  Moderately  used  raw  in  winter  they 
prove  serviceable — in  excess  they  are  positively 
injurious. 


99 


ECONOMY  OF  USING  CHAFF  AND  BRUISED 
CORN. 

With  regard  to  the  bruising  of  corn  and  cutting 
hay  into  chaff,  I  find  the  practice  attended  with 
good  results.  It  suits  a  mixed  class  of  animals 
better,  and  causes  a  more  perfect  mixture  of  each 
kind  than  would  be  derived  from  the  food  in  the 
whole  state. 

It  is  an  important  proceeding  where  boys  are 
employed ;  for  where  they  have  access  to  unbruised 
com,  they  often  take  out  beans,  peas,  or  tares  for 
pigs,  rabbits,  poultry,  or  pigeons  at  home. 

The  cutting  of  food,  as  already  shown,  causes 
a  proper  and  continued  flow  of  saliva — an  im- 
portant process,  in  order  to  ensure  digestion  of 
the  numerous  starchy  elements  of  food  upon 
which  horses  and  cattle  live.  The  cost*  incurred 
is  very  little  with  proper  machinery,  and  amply 
repays  for  the  outlay  in  a  very  short  time. 

By  the  addition  of  oat  or  wheat-straw,  a  saving 
is  not  only  effected,  but  the  food  is  further  aided 
in  digestion.  The  usual  proportions  are  one- 
fourth  straw  and  three-fourths  hay,  but  many 
persons  use  equal  parts. 

These  are  strictly  non-nutritious  agents  as 
used.  They  are  given  purposely  for  providing 


*  It  is  frequently  estimated  that  hay  costs  2s.  per  ton  cutting, 
and  the  bruising  of  corn  one  penny  per  bushel.  Mr.  Hunting, 
however,  informs  me  that  the  work  is  performed  at  the  South 
Hotton  colliery  for  half  these  sums. 

H  2 


100  Economy  of  CJiaff  and  Bruised  Corn. 


necessary  bulk,  and  assisting  in  grinding  down 
the  other  portions  of  food  within  the  digestive 
organs.  As  an  agent  of  nutrition  hay  is  very 
expensive,  and  in  that  respect  little  superior 
to  straw,  which,  with  other  food,  I  have  known 
given  regularly  to  animals,  no  hay  being  allowed, 
while  the  condition  has  been  all  that  could  be 
desired. 

In  all  the  cereals  and  leguminosse  ripeness  of 
the  plant  is  evidenced  by  the  development  and 
perfection  of  the  seed  in  the  various  receptacles ; 
prior  to  that  stage  the  stem  contains  the  nutri- 
tion. Notwithstanding  this  fact,  so  apparent  as 
it  must  be  to  every  farmer  that  the  analogy 
exists  in  each,  hay  is  allowed  to  stand  for  days, 
and  even  weeks,  before  being  cut,  when  it  must 
be  an  utter  impossibility  for  any  increase  to  take 
place.  Growth  is  completed,  the  plant  ripens,  as 
indicated  by  the  seeds  becoming  plump.  They 
contain  all  the  nutriment,  and  in  the  main  arc 
shed  upon  the  ground  by  every  wind  that  blows, 
leaving  the  hay  nothing  better  than  a  fine  sample 
of  straw. 

The  higher  price  asked  for  this  fine  sample, 
we  may  infer,  is  to  cover  the  loss  occasioned  by 
this  species  of  neglect. 

I  wish  it  to  be  understood  that  I  am  not  pre- 
judiced to  the  exclusive  use  of  cut  hay  and 
bruised  corn.  When  given  whole  these  sub- 
stances may  be  effectively  masticated,  and  the 
animals  will  appear  excellent  and  pay  well  for 


Pea  and  Bean  Straw.  101 


the  proper  selection  and  mixture  of  food.  I, 
nevertheless,  consider  that  a  larger  profit  accrues 
by  avoiding  the  waste  which  always  happens  when 
hay  is  given  whole  (or  long),  besides  suiting  for 
general  purposes  much  better. 

Food  so  prepared  will  require  wide  and  deep 
mangtrs  fitted  with  cross  bars,  to  prevent  the 
animals  throwing  it  out  in  their  search  for  the 
more  tasty  portions. 

On  this  subject  many  investigations  have  taken 
place  at  home  and  abroad,  and  the  results  are, 
without  exception,  favourable. 

In  France,  Leblanc  found  that  animals  fed 
upon  boiled  food  fattened,  but  lost  vigour 
and  became  affected  with  disease ;  while  dry 
food  had  a  contrary  effect.  M.  Charlier 
says,  with  cooked  food  the  animals  are  very 
subject  to  disease,  but  since  the  regular  adoption, 
by  omnibus  proprietors,  of  dry,  bruised,  and  cut 
food,  founder,  colic,  and  illnesses  generally, 
which  each  week  were  numerous,  had  become 
quite  exceptional. 


PEA  AND  BEAN  STRAW. 

The  question  has  frequently  been  put  to  me, 
"  Is  pea  or  bean-straw  useful  for  feeding  horses  ?" 
To  this  an  affirmative  answer  may  be  given,  when 
the  article  has  been  carefully  gathered  and  housed. 
It  should  always  be  cut  up  small,  and  mixed  with 


102  Saving  to  be  Effected. 

the  bruised  mixtures  of  corn,  and  large  quantities 
should  be  avoided  by  using  with  it  cut  hay. 
Equal  parts  of  hay  and  pea-straw,  or  three  parts 
of  hay  to  one  of  bean-straw,  will  answer  very  well 
for  working  horses,  but  I  deprecate  filling  the 
racks  with  either. 

The  many  fatal  cases  of  disease  which  occur 
from  their  use,  is  owing  to  the  inferior  condition 
of  the  straw,  coupled  with  being  in  undue  quanti- 
ties and  other  irregularities,  which  too  often  exist 
in  the  farm  stable. 


SAVING  TO  BE   EFFECTED. 

Carefully  carried  out,  these  principles  will 
effect  an  enormous  saving,  and  I  have  no  hesita- 
tion in  stating  that,  among  the  numbers  of  animals 
employed  in  Glasgow  and  other  large  towns  of 
Great  Britain,  it  may  be  raised  to  thousands  of 
pounds  annually,  and,  in  addition,  a  corresponding 
sum  by  the  avoidance  of  disease. 

The  farmer  need  not  grudge  his  horse  corn, 
since  it  can  be  shown  that  he  can  be  fed  at  less 
cost  than  many  now  incur  on  inferior  hay,  straw, 
and  provender  generally,  and  derive  greater 
aptitude  for  work. 

The  poor  man  may  also  feed  better  and  save  a 
few  shillings  weekly,  which  would  be  well  applied 
to  the  formation  of  a  fund  wherewith  he  could 
replace  his  animal  in  the  event  of  death,  without 


Saving  to  be  Effected.  103 


resorting  to  the  subscription  system  over  his 
immediate  district,  which  is  too  commonly  done. 

The  principles  are  important  to  large  owners, 
who  might  also  raise  a  fund  with  the  savings  for 
the  same  purpose,  and  to  remunerate,  in  some 
cases  I  could  name,  those  who  are  able,  and  study 
to  apply  effectually  the  system  calculated  to 
bring  about  the  change. 

All  food  should  be  of  the  best  quality  and  kind. 
If  inferior  kinds  are  purchased,  and  require  dis- 
guising by  some  process  to  make  them  palatable, 
the  sooner  he  who  purchases  such  is  removed  the 
better. 

No  mixture  or  process  of  doctoring  can  render 
such  available  as  nutritive  food  when  the  elements 
are  not  present,  nor  can  any  admixture  of  con- 
dimental  nonsense  effect  it  either.  The  experi- 
ments of  Mr.  J.  B.  Lawes  have  definitely  proved 
that  when  animals  improve  their  condition  with 
the  use  of  condiments — which  in  themselves  have 
no  nutrition  scarcely — the  result  occurs  from  an 
increased  consumption  of  corn.  The  proprietors 
of  such  compounds  may  state  what  they  please 
in  puffing  their  wares.  But  against  their  puffing 
it  can  be  positively  asserted,  as  an  undoubted 
fact,  that  condiments,  spicy  foods,  or  by  what- 
ever term  they  are  known,  do  not  effect  any  im- 
provement upon  inferior  food  with  which  they 
may  be  mixed,  and  are  not  economical,  as  set 
against  common  salt,  which  is  far  superior  at 
one-fortieth  the  price.  On  the  other  hand,  they 


1 04  Importance  of  Grooming. 


are  expensive  articles  of  diet,  and  can  only  be 
looked  upon  as  substances  quite  dispensable,  and 
of  no  great  service  in  the  feeding  of  animals. 

Within  a  recent  period  a  sample  of  food 
intended  for  working  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep, 
has  been  submitted  to  me  by  Messrs.  Whyte  and 
Cruikshank,  Chryston  Mills,  near  Glasgow,  which, 
although  bearing  the  name  of  a  "  Patent 
Prepared  Food/''  it  is  only  justice  to  state, 
partakes  of  none  of  the  qualities  of  condimental 
or  spicy  foods.  It  is  a  preparation  embodying, 
to  a  certain  extent,  the  principles  laid  down  in 
these  pages,  the  whole  of  the  ingredients  being 
carefully  selected,  decorticated,  ground,  and 
baked.  It  is  highly  spoken  of  by  several  pro- 
prietors, and  will  doubtless  prove  a  great  boon 
to  those  who  cannot  devote  attention  to  the 
selection  of  provender  for  horses,  or  where  only 
one  or  two  are  kept.  I,  however,  have  no  ex- 
perience of  its  use,  but  judging  from  information 
received  as  to  its  composition,  and  the  respecta- 
bility of  its  inventors,  have  no  doubt  it  will  fulfil 
the  ends  claimed  for  it,  and  call  for  an  extended 
trial. 

IMPORTANCE  OF   GROOMIXG. 

There  is  one  particular  in  the  management  of 
horses  which  so  materially  influences  the  effects  of 
food  upon  the  system,  that  it  will  not  admit  of 
being  unnoticed,  although  the  attention  be  ex- 
ceedingly  brief.  This  is  grooming. 


Importance  of  Grooming.  105 


How  far  this  principle  is  carried  with  many 
of  our  town  dray  and  cab  horses  can  be  clearly 
ascertained  by  merely  passing  within  a  few  yards 
as  they  stand  in  the  street.  After  they  have 
spent  hours  in  the  open  air,  the  odour  of  the 
stable  is  yet  strongly  upon  them. 

There  are,  doubtless,  good  reasons  to  be 
assigned  for  this  in  some  instances,  the  most 
common  being  that  of  absolute  laziness.  There 
are,  however,  cases  where  a  groom  or  horsekeeper 
is  expected  to  execute  multifarious  duties  in 
addition  to  those  01  the  stable,  and  in  conse- 
quence the  horse  is  neglected.  Another  fruitful 
source  of  neglect  is  to  be  found  in  low  wages, 
and  the  men  endeavour  to  make  up  the  deficiency 
by  looking  after  per-centages. 

Therefore  it  proves  to  his  interest  to  be  care- 
less and  incur  expense  upon  all  sides,  which  is 
done  to  an  alarming  pitch  in  some  instances.  A 
third  cause  is  the  unreasonable  number  of  horses 
which  are  placed  under  the  care  of  horsekeepers. 
This  is  a  most  monstrous  practice  in  some  of  the 
coal  mines.  I  have  found  it  to  occur  invariably, 
that  where  the  animals  are  working  in  the  greatest 
amount  of  heat  and  dust — two  or  even  three 
miles  from  the  bottom  of  the  shaft — where  they 
perspire  most  freely,  and  endure  every  vicissi- 
tude inimical  to  general  health,  there  they  have 
had  the  least  attention. 

All  this  arose  from  an  excess  of  duties. 

In  such  cases  I  found  men  having  the  care  of 


106  Importance  of  Grooming. 


almost  a  fabulous  number  of  animals,  and  the 
only  reasonable  conclusion  one  can  come  to  is, 
that  such  work  and  conditions  are  imposed  upon 
the  poor  creatures,  that  it  would  amply  repay  the 
Society  for  the  Prevention  of  Cruelty  to  Animals, 
and  other  adherents  to  Martin's  Act,  for  an 
application  to  Parliament  to  institute  special 
investigations  into  their  condition,  with  a  view 
to  an  amelioration.  For  less  than  one-twentieth 
— aye,  one-hundredth — of  the  physical  appear- 
ances of  a  pit  animal  witnessed  in  a  horse  in  our 
streets,  the  keen  eyes  of  the  policeman  would 
have  a  case,  but  from  these  places  in  the  recesses 
of  the  earth  there  comes  no  cry,  and  nothing  is 
known. 

One  horsekeeper  had  under  his  care  fifteen 
horses  and  nineteen  ponies ;  a  second,  four 
horses  and  twenty-four  ponies ;  a  third,  twenty- 
three  ponies ;  a  fourth,  two  horses  and  thirty- 
eight  ponies;  a  fifth,  nine  horses  and  twenty- 
eight  ponies. 

Three  men  had  the  care  of  five  horses  and 
eighty-nine  ponies  in  a  sixth  instance,  and 
three  others  had  the  care  of  twenty-two  horses 
and  fifty-one  ponies. 

These  animals  are  to  be  fed,  harnessed,  and 
cleaned  to  go  out  to  work  at  5  a.m.  by  these 
men,  who  descend  several  hours  previously  in 
order  to  attempt  an  impossibility. 

If  we  take  the  mean  of  these  numbers,  we 
shall  find  that  each  man  had  an  average  of 
thirty  animals  to  attend  to.  The  arrangements 


Importance  of  Grooming.  107 


of  the  stables  are  not  always  suited  towards 
reducing  the  labours  of  the  men,  being  fre- 
quently in  a  continuous  line  of  stalls  arranged 
on  one  side,  which  necessitates  several  journeys 
to  each  animal  for  turning  to  water,  tying  up, 
supplying  with  corn  and  hay  when  they  cannot 
be  fed  at  the  head.  Estimating  the  trouble 
which  these  men  have,  and  the  risk  they  run 
for  a  few  shillings  a  week,  one  cannot  be  sur- 
prised that  the  horses  and  ponies  do  not  receive 
their  proper  share  of  attention. 

The  idea  of  cleaning  them  is  estimated  as 
the  boy  did  the  operation  of  washing  his  hands 
and  face  when  he  refused  on  the  score  of  their 
becoming  as  bad  again  shortly.  Such  an  esti- 
mate, however,  does  not  render  the  fact  as  it 
exists  less  flagrant. 

Let  each  man  be  limited  to  a  specified  time 
for  the  execution  of  the  various  details  ex- 
pected from  him,  and  it  will  be  more  apparent 
how  absurd  must  be  the  belief  that  these  animals 
can  obtain  one-fourth  the  necessary  attention 
under  their  peculiar  and  extreme  conditions. 

Feeding  with  corn,  each  one  minute      =    30  minutes. 

„  hay,  „  =    30       „ 

Harnessing,  with  repairs,  two  minutes  =    60       ,, 
Turning  to  water  and  tying- up,  one 

minute  -    30       „ 

Brushing  down,  each  five  minutes        =150       „ 


Which  occupies  for  thirty  animals 
or  five  hours  in  all. 


300 


108  Importance  of  Grooming. 


The  men  descend  at  2  a.m.,  which  only  leaves 
three  hours  to  perform  a  number  of  duties,  the 
time  for  which,  estimated  as  low  as  possible,  is 
not  sufficient  to  allow  of  their  being  effected  in 
any  other  than  a  most  slovenly  manner — really 
occupies  two  hours  more  than  the  men  can 
actually  bestow  on  them.  At  night  they  are 
merely  stripped,  watered,  and  fed,  in  order  to 
allow  them  rest. 

To  occupy  more  time  with  them  would  be 
also  prejudicial,  as  the  hours  of  rest  would  be 
materially  interfered  with ;  and  consequently  an 
average  of  thirty  animals,  estimated  at  about 
£300,  are  thought  no  more  of  than  to  value 
their  care  and  management  at  the  rate  of  fifteen 
shillings  a  week,  or  sixpence  per  head — the 
amount  paid  to  the  horsekeepers. 

Here,  where  the  truth  of  the  old  maxim,  "  A 
good  cleaning  is  equal  to  a  feed  of  corn/'  would 
be  faithfully  realized,  it  cannot  be  carried 
out. 

When  complaints  were  made,  and  exact  con- 
ditions represented,  all  was  pooh-poohed,  and  any 
alterations  it  was  said  would  cost  the  estate 
£300  per  annum,  as  ascertained  by  figures,  which, 
emanating  from  the  executive  were  reliable,  but 
worth  nothing  when  they  arose  from  the 
mental  calculations  of  one  who  was  not  a 
"  Viewer/' 

Such  is  the  connexion  which  exists  between 
the  skin  and  digestive  organs,  that  if  these  poor 


Importance  of  Grooming.  109 

creatures  could  receive  a  guaranteed  dressing  of 
fifteen  minutes  only,  each  night  and  morning, 
the  effects  would  be  marvellous. 

In  a  solitary  instance,  one  man  had  fourteen 
animals  under  his  care.  As  he  was  infirm  and 
contented  himself  solely  with  the  employment  as 
horsekeeper,  he  could  devote  more  attention  to 
them  than  was  possible  in  the  other  pits. 

Every  morning  and  night  each  was  well  dressed 
with  a  coarse  brush,  and  left  in  a  much  more 
comfortable  state. 

His  horses  and  ponies  would  have  caused 
many  owners  of  animals  above  ground  to  blush 
with  shame  at  their  superior  condition  and  clean 
shining  skins.  They  were  always  doing  equal 
work  with  the  animals  of  other  collieries,  but 
suffered  the  leant  of  all,  and  consumed  the  least 
corn. 

I  have  preferred  to  recite  these  facts  rather 
than  dictate  a  philosophical  explanation  of  the  uses 
of  a  brush  and  comb  to  the  body  of  the  horse. 
Those  who  are  so  pertinaciously  obstinate  as  to 
deny  him  the  influence  of  this  luxury,  I  am 
afraid  are  not  in  a  condition  to  explain  the 
benefits  of  such  an  application  from  any  ex- 
perience of  the  adoption  of  similar  means  to 
themselves.  However,  these  are  considered  to 
be  measures  not  truly  essential,  and  therefore, 
while  the  attempt  is  on  the  one  hand  to  save,  as 
these  pseudo  savants  suppose,  the  sum  of  .£300 
per  annum,  they  have  not  the  philosophy  to  see, 


110  Importance  of  Grooming. 


or  the  honesty  to  allow  another  to  show,  that 
four  times  that  amount  could  be  saved  in  the 
feeding  in  twelve  months,  and  as  much  more 
in  a  variety  of  ways  of  which  they  cannot  form 
any  conception. 

We  shall  refer  to  further  details  on  this  sub- 
ject in  a  subsequent  part  of  the  work. 


r 


PAET  III. 
GENERAL    MANAGEMENT* 


THE  SELECTION  AND  PURCHASE 
OF   HORSES. 

THE  arduous  nature  of  the  various  conditions 
which  attend  the  selection  and  purchase  of 
horses,  is  generally  understood  and  acknowledged 
even  by  those  of  little  experience.  There  is  no 
subject  upon  which  buyers  so  often  feel  the 
greatest  need  of  assistance  and  advice,  and,  at 
the  same  time,  where  greater  difficulty  exists 
in  rendering  these  profitable  and  acceptable. 
Circumstances  may  arise,  phases  previously 
hidden  may  appear,  or  gratuitous  interference 
disturb  the  aspect  of  affairs,  and  thus  begin  all 
the  troubles  and  vexations  which  too  commonly 
supplement  the  efforts  of  those  in  search  of  a 
horse. 

The  tricks  of  low  and  disreputable  dealers 
render  the  process  at  once  tedious,  harassing, 
and  difficult ;  while  the  subsequent  ordeal  may  be 
fairly  represented  as  being  irremediable  as  well 


12  The  Selection  and 


as  inevitable.  Purchasers  at  fairs  are  greatly 
exposed  to  the  practices  of  such  rascals,  -who 
never  fail  to  secure  both  animal  and  money  in 
the  end,  and  thus  provide  the  means  of  con- 
stantly possessing  a  trap  wherein  unsuspecting 
persons  easily  fall. 

Some  years  ago  a  hard-working  honest  man, 
well  known  to  the  writer,  attended  a  fair  in 
Yorkshire  for  the  purchase  of  a  cart-horse.  He 
was  by  no  means  a  bad  judge  of  the  physical 
characters  required  in  the  animal  sought,  and 
soon  his  eyes  fell  upon  one  in  which  was  con- 
centrated, to  all  appearance,  the  qualities  so 
essential  for  the  purposes.  Price  being  asked, 
and  the  animal  shown  through  various  evolutions, 
no  objection  was  found.  Accordingly  a  purchase 
was  made  and  the  horse  led  away. 

The  new  owner  had  not  proceeded  far  before 
a  stranger,  to  him  at  least,  stepped  up  and 
offered  a  small  sum  for  the  horse,  adding, 
"  You'll  not  like  to  take  him  into  your  stable  as 
he's  '  blaundered '  "  (i.e.  glandered).  And  thus 
he  continued  to  pester  the  poor  fellow,  while 
others  privy  to  the  game  joined  at  various 
stages  on  the  road,  and  kept  up  the  spirit  which 
was  to  secure  again  their  prize. 

Upon  examination  the  animal  was  found  to  be 
a  most  confirmed  roarer — in  the  language  of  the 
dealers,  said  "  to  have  the  bellans  " — and  had 
been  drugged  in  order  to  cause  the  defect  to  pas«» 
unobserved. 


Purchase  of  Horses.  113 


Upon  another  occasion  a  merchant  purchased 
a  very  eligible-looking  animal  for  his  cart, 
giving  rather  a  high  sum  to  a  person  who  repre- 
sented himself  as  a  well-to-do  farmer  in  the 
neighbourhood.  A  warranty  of  soundness  was 
drawn  up  by  the  vendor,,  signed  and  transferred 
at  the  same  time,  and  a  groom  removed  the 
horse  to  his  master's  stables.  For  days  several 
men — of  course  members  of  the  gang — lingered 
about  the  premises  of  the  merchant,  offering 
various  small  sums,  declaring  the  animal  to  be 
affected  with  glanders.  The  merchant  took  no 
notice  for  some  time,  but  at  length  said  he  was 
very  glad  he  had  obtained  such  an  animal,  as  a 
friend  of  his  wished  to  have  him,  in  order  to 
catch  the  dupes  at  fairs.  This  spurred  up  the 
gang,  who,  rather  than  lose  their  profitable  horse, 
actually  purchased  him  back  again  at  a  sum  very 
little  below  the  original  price.  This  animal  was 
found  to  be  affected  with  a  chronic  discharge 
from  one  of  the  nostrils,  which  had  been  arrested 
during  the  purchase  by  a  piece  of  tow  pressed  up 
the  passage  for  the  purpose. 

These  tricks  are  very  commonly  practised,  and 
suffer  modification  in  order  to  render  the  end 
more  easy  of  accomplishment.  A  horse  but 
slightly  lame  in  a  forefoot  is  "  beaned." 

This  consists  in  paring  thin  the  sole  of  the 
opposite  forefoot  near  the  toe,  and  replacing  the 
shoe,  having  first  put  a  small  pebble  beneath  it. 
It  has  the  e fleet  of  rendering  the  action  of  both 


114  The  Selection  and 


fore  legs  nearer  alike,  and  if  properly  done  suc- 
ceeds in  causing  animals  to  change  hands  fre- 
quently. 

Another  species  of  fraud  consists  in  filing 
down  the  wearing  surface  of  the  front  or  incisor 
teeth  of  old  horses,  and  graving  hollows  to  re- 
semble those  of  young  teeth.  This  is  called 
"bishoping/'  but  by  those  who  study  the  form 
and  angularity  of  the  teeth,  as  well  as  the  varied 
changes  which  they  undergo  throughout  advanc- 
ing age,  the  trick  is  easily  detected.  Young 
horses  a,re  also  practised  upon,  in  order  to  palm 
them  off  at  a  higher  price  as  being  four  or  five 
years  old. 

Many  breeders  who  aim  at  respectability  are 
foolishly  tempted  to  carry  out  this  fraud,  which 
consists  in  extracting  the  corner,  and  sometimes 
the  middle  incisor  teeth.  At  best  it  is  but  a  very 
clumsy  and  barbarous  plan,  and  signally  fails  to 
produce  the  appearances  desired.  The  custom  is 
so  prevalent  in  Ireland  and  other  parts  among 
dealers,  that  it  cannot  long  fail  to  attract  the  at- 
tention of  the  Society  for  Prevention  of  Cruelty  to 
Animals,  and,  we  hope,  meet  with  total  abolition. 

The  signs  of  age  are  otherwise  dealt  with,  in 
order  if  possible  to  obliterate  them.  The 
measures,  however,  seldom  succeed  before  a 
practised  eye.  In  animals  of  great  age,  large 
depressions  or  hollows  are  found  above  the  eyes, 
and  horse-copers  prick  through  the  skin  and  blow 
in  air,  as  butchers  inflate  the  carcass.  For  a 


Purchase  of  Horses.  115 


time  the  hollows  disappear,  but  are  seen  again 
when  the  air  is  absorbed  or  has  escaped. 

White  place s,  such  as  a  star,  stripe,  or  blaze 
in  the  face,  white  heels  or  fetlocks,  and  patches 
of  white  hair  which  are  found  on  the  knees  and 
other  parts  indicating  previous  damage  to  the 
skin,  are  painted  or  dyed  with  coloured  solutions. 
This  is  called  "  gypping/-*  and  is  recognised  by 
the  different  shades  employed  and  dissimilarity  of 
colour  to  that  of  the  hair  over  the  rest  of  the 
body.  Besides,  it  is  usually  found  to  wash  off  or 
gradually  disappear  with  subsequent  growth  of 
hair. 

Animals  affected  with  broken  wind  are  dosed 
with  shot  and  fat,  under  the  false  belief  that  the 
former  by  actual  weight  causes  the  stomach  ts. 
"  hang  away  from  the  lungs,"  and  the  latter 
"  lubricates  the  air-passages."  Neither,  however, 
succeed  with  the  practised  veterinarian.  The 
dupes  who  suffer  from  these  frauds  are  usually 
men  who  rely  upon  the  so-called  judgment  of 
one  representing  himself  as  a  friend,  and  who 
contrives  to  come  upon  the  scene  at  the  moment 
when  his  opinion  has  greatest  weight.  Under  these 
circumstances,  if  the  purchaser  misses  an  animal 
which  is  either  "  broken- winded,"  "  bishoped," 
"  gypped,"  "  puffed,"  "  blaundered,"  or  has  the 
"  bellans,"  he  may  have  secured  a  more  worthless 
prize  in  the  shape  of  a  dangerous  brute  that  will 
shy  at  everything  on  the  road,  kick  and  bite,  plunge 
and  rear  or  run  away,  after  the  passions  are 


113  The  Selection  and 


relieved  of  the  powerful  drugs  which  have  been 
used.  Otherwise  he  obtains  one  lame  in  the 
back,,  called  by  the  rogues  "  a  kidney  dropper/' 
or  another  having  a  nervous  affection  and  known 
by  the  term  "  shiverer." 

These,  however,  by  no  means  complete  the 
category  of  defects  which  hang  to  the  horse. 
There  are  others  which  form  admirable  qualities 
for  the  low  horse-coper  whereby  to  catch  the 
unwary  purchaser,  but  even  these  are  sometimes 
met  with  in  animals  coming  from  other  sources ; 
and  while  I  am  desirous  of  letting  all  have  the 
benefit  of  a  doubt,  if  such  there  be  upon  the 
question  at  issue,  it  is,  I  think,  too  much  to  believe 
that  such  screws  are  always  produced  in  ignorance. 

Being  in  want  of  several  heavy  draught  horses 
upon  one  occasion,  I  presented  myself  at  the 
stables  of  a  certain  dealer  and  made  known  my 
wants,  but  did  not  discover  my  profession  to  him. 
"  All  right,  sir,"  said  he,  "  I  have  just  your  sort  ;*' 
and  addressing  his  satellite,  "  I  say,  Bill,  bring 
out  them  'ere  cart  'asses  in  the  little  stable. 
Look  there,  sir,"  he  began,  as  the  creature  was 
being  led  out  of  the  doorway,  "you  never  put  a 
collar  on  sech  a  piece  o'  stuff  in  all  your  born 
days.  Talk  o'  pullin,  sir,  why  I  never  had  sech 
a  'oss  to  pull.  I  have  been  a  dealer  off  an'  on 
for  the  last  forty  year,  an'  I  don't  know  as  I've 
had  such  a  bit  o'  mettle.  Put  him  alongside  the 
wall,  Bill !  woho,  now  !  There  !  look  at  his  legs, 
sir !  sech  pints  for  a  cart  'oss !  why.  he's  like 


Purchase  of  Horses.  117 


?axwork  itself!  talk  about  simmertery,  did  you 
ever  see  secli  as  that  ?  I'm  blessed  if  I  ever  seed 
sech  a  splendid  carcass  on  sech  strapping  lims, 
an',  lor  bless  you,  the  money's  nothink.  See  him 
trot,  sir  ?  why,  he  moves  like  a  pony.  Now,  Bill, 
where's  your  ginger  ?  look  alive,  my  boy ;  don't 
keep  the  gentleman  waiting." 

"  Excuse  me,  sir/'  I  remarked,  "  you  will 
have  the  goodness  to  spare  the  animal  the  torture 
about  to  be  inflicted ;  it  affords  me  no  gratifica- 
tion, it  will  not  enhance  him  one  atom  in  my 
estimation,  and  let  him  return  to  the  stall,  as  his 
qualities  are  not  suitable  for  my  purpose." 

Rather  crestfallen,  the  dealer  said,  "  All  right, 
sir,  I'm  sorry,  but  we'll  show  another." 

A  second  and  a  third  were  brought  out,  and 
successively  rejected,  when  the  dealer  remarked, 
"  You  seem  rayther  queer  to  please,  sir."  "  Not 
at  all,  I  assure  you,"  was  my  reply.  "  Then  why 
can't  you  take  these  'osses?"  and  he  was  about  to 
go  off  express  again  in  canting  description  of 
their  virtues  and  other  qualifications,  when  I  cut 
him  short  by  saying,  "  Upon  all  occasions  when 
purchasing  horses,  I  endeavour  to  obtain  sound 
animals,  as  they  suit  our  purpose  much  better 
I  prefer  them  without  spavins,  ringbones,  and 
other  prejudicial  bony  deposits  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  important  joints,  as  the  work  they  are 
put  to  usually  is  sufficient  to  cause  them  to 
appear  soon  enough." 

He  flew  into  a  wild  and  violent  passion,  and 


118  The  Selection  and 


declared  I  wished  to  take  away  the  character  of 
his  horses,  and  what  was  more,  called  me  a  muff, 
and  a  fool,  as  his  horses  were  perfectly  sound, 
and  I  could  not  know  whether  they  had  spavins 
or  anything  else,  as  I  had  not  put  a  hand  upon 
them.  He  was,  however,  brought  to  a  little,  by 
my  telling  him  the  statement  was  much  the 
worse  for  him  if  the  defects  were  so  plain  that 
they  needed  no  manipulation  to  confirm  the  ap- 
pearances already  present.  He  protested,  how- 
ever, his  ignorance  of  anything  wrong,  and  I 
advised  him  to  take  them  to  a  respectable  veteri- 
nary surgeon  for  examination,  and  show  me  the 
report.  I  here  handed  him  my  card,  when  he 
became  perfectly  silent,  and  got  out  of  my  sight 
as  quickly  as  possible. 

Later  in  the  day  several  friends,  at  my  request, 
called  upon  the  dealer  and  inquired  for  animals 
of  the  kind.  All  that  I  had  seen  were  brought 
out,  and  upon  each  occasion  declared  as  before 
sound  and  immaculate. 

To  say  there  are  no  honest  horse-dealers  would 
be  a  gross  calumny,  but  I  must  express  my  sus- 
picion that  many  are  so  accustomed  to  chant 
the  praises  of  sound  animals — that  is,  sound  to  the 
best  of  their  knowledge  and  belief — that  one  may 
ascribe  such  a  mistake  as  just  related  to  a  lapsus 
linguae.  We  must  therefore  look  over  it  accor- 
dingly, and  of  course  at  the  same  time  the 
animals  upon  which  such  vile  praise  has  been 
bestowed. 


Purchase  of  Horses.  119 


Amongst  the  defects  which  are  found  to 
lessen  the  value  of  horses  as  well  as  their  useful- 
ness, are  diseases  of  the  eyes.  An  ordinary 
observer  may  regard  these  organs  as  perfectly 
sound,  and  their  appearances  justifying  purchase, 
but  alas  !  finds  the  animal  either  suffering  from 
impaired  vision,  or,  may  be,  totally  blind.  In  such 
cases  the  ears  will  be  observed  to  be  carried  for- 
ward, and  their  movements  are  exceedingly 
rapid,  and  the  eyes  staring,  the  central  opening 
or  pupil  being  wider  than  in  health,  and  colour  of 
the  organ  probably  being  blue  or  yellow.  Other 
conditions  are  present,  which  however  are  only  to 
be  detected  by  those  conversant  with  the  different 
structures  of  the  organs. 

Chronic  cough,  disease  of  the  lungs  and 
heart,  stomach,  liver,  &c.  now  and  then  is  found 
to  be  present.  Malformations,  the  result  of 
accident  or  vicious  propensity,  may  be  detected ; 
or  the  beast  may  be  a  crib-biter,  or  wind-sucker, 
washy,  and  a  bad  doer,  no  matter  what  he  gets 
to  eat.  Whatever  may  be  his  qualities  at  work, 
in  the  stable  he  may  be  a  perfect  demon,  or  he 
may  unite  the  kicker  at  work,  with  the  "  jibber/' 
or  one  that  will  not  draw. 

Another  may  be  as  gentle  and  docile  as  a 
lamb  in  the  stable,  quiet  in  harness  or  under  the 
saddle,  and  capable  of  doing  the  highest  rate  of 
speed  with  action  and  grace  unparalleled,  but  the 
pleasure  of  sitting  behind  such  a  creature  is 
marred  by  the  fact  that  on  reaching  the  stable 


120  T/te  Selection  and 


the  appetite  is  gone.  The  animal  is  overdone ; 
and  be  careful  as  you  will,  the  scene  recurs  after 
each  journey,  and  is  sometimes  supplemented  by 
irritation  of  the  bowels,  colic,  &c. 

Several  days  are  passed  before  the  animal  is 
pronounced  safe  for  work,  or  still  further  cause 
for  dissatisfaction  appears  in  a  variety  of  ways ; 
and  no  other  conclusion  is  justifiable,  than  that 
the  animal  has  been  sold  on  account  of  these 
faults.  He  is  sold  again  quickly  if  death  does 
not  prevent  the  opportunity. 

In  the  multitude  of  conditions  which  render 
horseflesh  (in  a  state  of  animation,  not  as  cheva- 
line  a  la  mode)  such  a  ticklish  commodity,  one 
cannot  but  be  surprised  at  the  few  opportunities 
there  are  to  avoid  the  disagreeable  consequences. 
Many  purchasers,  relying  upon  their  judgment 
alone,  make  fearful  work.  They  know  nothing 
of  the  nature,  form,  or  habits  of  the  animal  they 
seek,  and  consequently  become  very  lucrative 
victims.  To  purchase  horses  in  a  profitable 
manner  requires  much  tact  and  judgment,  and  a 
knowledge  of  their  structural  anatomy  is  indis- 
pensable towards  detecting  blemishes  of  different 
kinds.  Much  practice  is  also  required,  but  this 
alone  will  not  do,  as  we  have  often  known  horse- 
dealers  of  forty  and  fifty  years'  experience  quite 
as  easily  taken  in  as  other  people. 

Bribery  in  horse-dealing. — Like  horse-racing, 
horse-dealing  practice  is  carried  on  more  for  the 
emolument  derived,  than  for  any  desire  always  to 


Purch  ase  of  Horses.  121 


distribute  a  good  and  serviceable  breed  of  horses. 
Many  patronize  the  turf  under  a  mistaken  idea 
that  present  systems  improve  our  breeds  of 
horses,  but  by  far  the  majority  have  personal  in- 
terest only  to  serve.  Horse-dealing  often  assumes 
the  latter  in  the  blackest  dye.  Upon  the  turf, 
races,  horses,  riders,  and  owners  are  sold)  and  in 
the  trial  ground  of  many  dealers  the  like  also 
occurs. 

"  What  do  you  want  for  that  pair  of  carriage 
horses  ?"  said  a  veterinary  surgeon  to  a  large 
dealer  not  long  ago.  "  Well,  look  here,"  replied 
the  owner ;  "  all  that  will  depend  upon  what  you 
require  as  premium.  I  can  afford  to  make  it 
worth  your  while,  only  state  what  you  wish." 
"  Well,  suppose  you  wanted  one  hundred  and 
fifty  pounds  for  the  pair,  what  premium  could 
you  afford  ?"  "  Twenty  pounds,"  said  the  dealer ; 
"  but  if  you  will  get  your  client  to  stand  two 
hundred  pounds,  I  can  then  give  you  fifty." 

This  statement  is  nearly  verbatim  as  received 
from  a  great  friend  who  was  employed  to  select 
a  pair  of  horses  for  a  gentleman,  who  being  in 
attendance  as  previously  requested,  was  thus 
informed  how  he  might  have  been  sold  if  he  fell 
among  thieves. 

Bribery  is  one  of  the  greatest  banes  which 
waits  almost  upon  every  transaction  in  reference 
to  horses.  They  cannot  be  shod,  physicked,  sold, 
nor  exchanged,  but  a  host  of  parasites  hover 
round,  "  for  wheresoever  the  carcass  is,  there  will 


122  The  Selection  and 


the  eagles  he  gathered  together."  If  there  were 
no  receivers  of  bribes,  there  would  be  no  one 
found  to  offer  them.  Under  the  system  the 
security  of  property  is  sacrificed,  and  its  sub- 
stance eaten  out  as  by  the  canker-worm  to  the 
very  core. 

A  dealer  in  horses  called  upon  a  veterinary 
surgeon  in  one  of  the  largest  towns  in  Yorkshire, 
and  promised  to  send  for  examination  all  the 
horses  he  had  for  sale,  providing  they  were  passed 
as  sound,  backed  by  a  certificate  to  that  effect,  and 
the  fee  did  not  exceed  five  shillings.  In  addition, 
the  considerate  rascal  offered  to  dispose  of  any 
screw  which  the  other  might  have  on  his  hands. 

Upon  making  inquiries,  it  turned  out  that  an 
unfortunate  individual  who  had  lost  all  sense  of 
honour  and  decency,  had  fallen  into  this  great 
error.  From  intemperate  habits  he  was  not  always 
available  when  required  even  to  write  a  certificate 
without  examination,  and  his  patron  was  desirous 
of  finding  some  one  to  supplant  him,  but  in  his 
application  barely  escaped  being  kicked  out  of 
doors. 

Warranty. — By  some  there  is  entertained  a 
great  but  fancied  security  in  a  warranty.  Half 
that  are  given  are  but  as  waste  paper.  Many 
cases  are  on  record  which  prove  this :  one  will 
suffice.  A  warranty  of  soundness  had  been  given 
with  a  horse  having  spavins  and  side-bones,  and 
there  were  not  wanting  witnesses  who  would 
swear  no  such  morbid  conditions  existed.  A  law 


Purchase  of  Horses.  123 


case  followed,  but  as  usual,  he  who  won,  actually 
lost.  The  defendant,  although  guilty  and  con- 
victed, was  not  wort^  the  paper  upon  which  the 
summons  was  printed,  and  a  poor  widow  was 
doubly  a  loser  in  consequence. 

Under  such  circumstances  a  warranty  is  of  no 
service  whatever,  and  even  in  others  where  there 
is  no  actual  fraud  existing  in  the  transaction, 
the  opinions  of  many  upon  the  existence  or  non- 
existence  of  defects,  and  the  constitution  of  un- 
soundness,  being  at  variance,  much  trouble  and 
vexation  occurs.  Nor  is  there  any  likelihood  of 
help  from  the  law  to  be  expected  in  future,  at 
least  as  far  as  can  be  seen  at  present.  As  science 
advances  and  receives  its  share  of  encouragement 
from  the  government  and  public,  definite  condi- 
tions relative  to  certain  diseases  may  be  insisted 
upon,  but  under  present  circumstances  a  warranty 
affords  but  very  slender  protection,  and  is  an  in- 
strument of  little  power  where  the  parties  con- 
cerned are  determined  to  be  fraudulent. 

Certificates  of  Soundness. — A  very  common 
mistake  occurs  with  many  when  purchasing  horses; 
that  is,  to  seek  a  veterinary  surgeon's  opinion 
after  the  contract  is  completed.  This  does  not 
always  occur  only  with  low-priced  animals,  but 
frequently  with  those  of  high  value.  They  are 
examined  and  found  defective,  but  there  is  no 
help  in  many  cases,  and  the  affair  amounts  to  so 
much  money  absolutely  thrown  away.  Purchasers 
who  desire  a  professional  opinion  upon  the  sound- 


124  The  Selection  and 


ness  of  horses,  should  always  obtain  it  before  the 
animal  becomes  their  property.  The  proceeding 
is  advantageous  in  many  ways,  and  much  trouble 
and  petty  annoyance  is  avoided. 

In  Ireland,  in  nearly  all  transactions  in  which 
horses  are  concerned,  the  purchase  is  effected  on 
the  result  of  an  examination  by  a  qualified  ve- 
terinary surgeon.  The  principle  is  more  in  favour 
in  England  than  formerly,  and  if  properly  con- 
ducted, many  legal  quibbles  are  undoubtedly 
avoided,  as  well  as  the  loss  of  time,  money,  and 
reputation,  and  hard  swearing  on  both  sides.  In 
practice,  the  proceeding  also  proves  more  pro- 
fitable than  even  a  written  warranty.  If  the 
animal  is  sound,  he  is  at  once  removed  and 
the  money  paid ;  if  the  reverse,  no  transaction 
occurs. 

The  certificate  given  by  the  professional  man 
proves  as  powerful  as  a  warranty;  because  in 
the  event  of  unsoundness,  the  dealer  cannot  sell 
his  horse.  In  case  the  animal  is  sound,  the 
purchaser  receives  an  assurance  to  the  effect,  and 
nothing  further  is  needed,  as  the  whole  thing 
hinges  upon  the  question. 

Recommending  Horses. — No  greater  mistake,  in 
the  author's  opinion,  can  be  made  by  a  profes- 
sional or  other  person,  than  that  of  recommend- 
ing horses.  Many  horse  proprietors  are  totally 
ignorant  of  the  nature,  habits,  capabilities,  and 
resources  of  a  horse,  and  in  eager  search  for  a 
desirable  animal,  meet  with  a  friend  who  sin- 


Purch  ase  of  Horses.  125 


cerely  and  honestly  recommends  one  which,  were 
he  to  drive,  feed,  and  house,  there  can  be  no 
doubt  would  prove  all  that  is  desired.  But, 
alas  !  as  soon  as  the  new  purchase  is  made,  the 
elated  proprietor,  well  posted  in  all  the  good 
qualities  of  the  creature,  takes  him  to  his  own 
stable.  No  attention  is  paid  to  the  different 
characters  which  exist  in  contradistinction  to  the 
one  just  left ;  and,  it  may  be,  a  case  of  cold, 
influenza,  or  something  worse,  soon  appears. 
The  feeding  may  be  different,  and  produce 
colic,  and  even  death.  If,  however,  he  escape  all 
these,  the  owner  rides  or  drives  out,  in  order  that 
his  good  lady  may  give  her  opinion. 

Afterwards  a  friend  in  the  next  street  is  ap- 
pealed to,  with  probably  fifty  others,  and  at  last 
a  friend  in  the  country.  All  are  particularly 
knowing,  or  at  least  appear  to  be  so.  One  sees 
a  spavin,  another  a  splint,  a  third  thinks  he  is 
lame ;  a  fourth  thinks  he  hears  a  slight  noise,  as 
from  roaring  or  whistling.  And  thus  the  game 
goes  on,  the  owner  fishing  for  compliments  upon 
his  judgment  and  selection,  while  none  of  the 
persons  consulted  are  disposed  to  pay  any,  but 
feel,  if  they  had  been  purchasers,  the  animal 
would  not  have  been  selected  by  them. 

In  order  to  detect  the  lameness  or  the  fancied 
sounds  so  offensive  to  the  ear,  it  is  suggested  that 
the  animal  shall  be  galloped.  The  owner  tries 
his  best,  but  fails ;  the  friend  who  suggested  the 
defect  also  mounts  or  takes  the  reins,  and  pell 


126  The  Selection  and 


mell  the  animal  goes  again.  He  may  not  be 
found  a  roarer,  but  probably  he  is  found  lame. 
Then  comes  the  tug  of  war.  All  agree  to  swear 
to  the  lameness ;  which  is  of  course  believed  to 
occur  from  conditions  present  at  or  prior  to  pur- 
chase. Recriminations  pass,  the  vendor  is  de- 
clared not  to  be  honest,  and  he  who  recommended 
the  animal  pronounced  as  being  actuated  by 
selfish  motives.  Money  is  wasted  in  useless  law 
squabbles,  no  one  but  the  lawyer  reaps  profit, 
while  vexation  crowns  him  who  wins  as  well  as  him 
who  loses. 

Precautions  to  be  observed. — When  it  is  desi- 
rable that  a  horse  should  be  purchased,  recourse 
should  be  had  if  possible  to  the  farmer  or  breeder 
usually  possessing  the  character  of  animal  required. 
If  this  cannot  be  done,  there  are  to  be  found 
dealers  who  know  it  is  to  their  interest  to  give 
purchasers  every  advantage  in  scrutiny.  When 
a  suitable  animal  is  found,  seek  the  opinion  of  a 
qualified  veterinary  surgeon,  who  for  a  guinea 
will  give  the  results  of  a  careful  examination, 
and  if  he  cannot  advise  as  to  purchase  or  put 
into  your  hands  a  genuine  horse,  he  will  at  least 
be  able  to  save  you  from  a  worthless  screw. 

Remember  also  there  are  circumstances  re- 
garding the  future  treatment  and  work  to  which 
the  animal  is  subjected.  These  should  form  a 
subject  upon  which  your  veterinary  medical  ad- 
viser is  to  be  consulted  afterwards.  Let  him 
advise  as  to  these,  and  depend  upon  it  another 


Purch  ase  of  Horses.  127 


source  of  vexation  is  thus  avoided.  It  is  far 
better  to  pay  for  advice  suited  to  each  particular 
case,  than  to  receive  a  course  of  drugs  in  after 
time,  and  pay  dearly  for  a  horse  in  hospital 
labouring  under  disease  which  for  one-tenth  part 
of  the  expenses  might  have  been  avoided  most 
certainly. 


123 


STABLE  MANAGEMENT. 

THE  secrets  of  success  in  profitable  stable  man- 
agement are  punctuality  and  regularity.  These 
contribute  towards  the  system  which  is  so  parti- 
cularly required.  Without  them,  it  is  an  utter 
impossibility  for  proper  attention  to  be  directed 
to  all  the  details  which  call  for  notice,  while 
nothing  will  operate  as  prejudicially  upon  the 
health  of  animals. 

Stable  management  will  receive  a  due  share  of 
consideration  under  several  heads  throughout  the 
present  work. 

Early  operations  in  the  Stable  consist  in  first 
making  a  general  examination  of  each  animal, 
particularly  those  which  have  been  tied  up  by 
halters  or  chains  in  stalls. 

This  is  useful  in  order  to  detect  injuries  from 
being  cast  or  loss  of  shoes  during  the  night,  and 
to  detect  signs  of  disorder  or  illness,  which  if 
present  are  best  reported  early ,  on  the  principle 
that  "  a  stitch  in  time  saves  nine." 

A  careful  inspection  having  been  made,  the 
animals  are  watered  and  fed,  and  while  they  are 
consuming  their  food  the  bedding  should  be  turned 
up,  and  stalls  and  other  parts  carefully  swept 
out.  Any  time  remaining  may  be  devoted  to 
the  examination  of  harness,  in  order  to  secure  the 
cleanliness  of  pads,  &c.,  observe  defects,  and  have 


Stable  Management.  129 


them  remedied  if  possible.  As  soon  as  the  food 
is  consumed,  the  operation  of  cleaning  is  to  be  car- 
ried on  in  good  earnest,  which  done,  harness  and 
prepare  for  daily  work. 

In  large  establishments  it  is  most  profitable  to 
employ  a  horsekeeper,  who,  having  charge  of  the 
provender  and  stables,  enters  at  a  certain  hour, 
say  five  a.m.,  and  feeds  the  whole.  Each  driver 
as  he  arrives,  then  turns  up  the  bedding,  exa- 
mines the  harness  and  cleans  his  horse.  By  this 
plan  animals  are  better  cared  for  in  the  feeding, 
and  much  waste  is  avoided. 

The  duties  of  the  horsekeeper  are,  during  the 
day,  to  see  that  the  stables  are  cleaned  thoroughly, 
receive  all  horses  coming  to  bait,  and  see  to  the 
feeding  of  the  whole  at  night. 

Each  horse  as  he  comes  from  work  is  carefully 
examined  by  him,  also  the  harness,  and  if  nothing 
calls  for  other  treatment,  the  animal  is  led  to  his 
stall,  watered  and  fed,  dressed  down  by  the  driver, 
bedded  and  left  for  the  night.  The  horsekeeper 
has  also  to  see  to  their  being  safely  tied  up,  all 
gaslights  turned  securely  off,  and  report  any  ir- 
regularities, lameness,  disease,  &c.,  which  he  may 
observe. 

In  hunting  and  racing  stables  modifications 
exist,  and,  to  the  credit  of  those  at  head  quarters, 
we  are  able  to  establish  the  principles  by  which 
punctuality  and  regularity  may  be  caused  to  work 
so  much  good.  Many  ailments  of  the  farm  or 
cart  horse  are  unknown  in  hunting  or  racing 

K 


130  Stable  Management. 


stables.  And  why  ?  Simply  from  the  fact 
that  animals  there  are  fed,  worked,  or  exercised 
with  the  clock.  If  these  principles  pervaded 
the  minds  of  those  who  keep  and  work,  or  drive 
carriage,  cart,  and  cab  horses,  there  would  be 
less  of  those  serious  consequences  which  so  often 
arise  and  mar  the  prospects.  A  young  man  in  the 
racing  or  hunting  stable,  goes  through  a  kind  of 
apprenticeship,  by  which  he  becomes  au  fait  at 
his  duties,  and  habits  of  regularity  are  enforced. 
If  coachmen  and  grooms  in  general  had  such 
training  always,  we  should  find  that  stable  man- 
agement in  our  towns  and  villages  would  be 
a  question  upon  which  there  would  be  but  lit- 
tle to  condemn.  In  no  other  horse  establish- 
ments is  there  such  wanton  waste  and  careless- 
ness, or  where  the  results  are  more  inconvenient 
and  harassing. 

In  hunting  and  racing  stables  the  morning 
hour  is  from  five  to  six  o'clock.  The  horses  are 
to  be  fed  and  watered,  bedding  turned  up,  and 
stables  swept.  Those  animals  going  to  work  are 
next  thoroughly  dressed,  and  afterwards  receive 
a  small  feed  of  corn  if  their  work  is  likely  to  be 
hard  and  time  will  permit.  Others  merely 
going  for  exercise  are  wiped  over  and  taken  out 
for  the  prescribed  time,  and  on  their  return 
receive  a  little  hay,  are  clothed,  have  their  feet 
examined  and  washed,  and  by  this  time  is  the 
hour  for  breakfast. 

The  grooms  on  their  return  to  the  stable  dress 


Stable  Management.  131 


over  their  horses  thoroughly,  clothe,  put  the 
stable  neat  after  sweeping  out  all  manure, 
throw  down  a  light  clean  layer  of  straw,  rack  up, 
and  leave  for  outside  duties.  At  noon,  corn,  hay, 
and  water  are  given  to  resting  horses,  and  the 
stable  again  locked  up.  Other  animals  coming 
from  work  are  fed  and  dressed  on  arrival. 

At  four  o'clock  it  is  the  custom  in  some  stables 
to  feed  again  with  corn ;  the  plan  in  the  main  is 
very  good.  At  seven  or  eight  o'clock  each  horse 
has  his  clothing  removed,  is  carefully  wiped  down, 
and  reclothed.  Clean  or  dry  straw  is  thrown 
down  for  bedding,  the  stable  utensils  carefully  put 
away,  and  water,  corn,  and  hay  supplied.  Collar 
chains,  head  collars,  and  halters  should  be  care- 
fully examined,  in  order  to  test  their  security  for 
horses  tied  up  with  them. 

See  that  in  loose  boxes  there  are  no  gas  brackets 
at  which  the  horse  can  get.  It  has  been  known 
that  playful  animals  have  turned  on  the  gas  and 
caused  their  own  death  from  its  inhalation  during 
the  night.  Boys  should  be  cautioned  against 
leaving  pails  in  stalls  or  boxes,  unless  specially 
ordered  and  required. 

Among  cart  horses,  cab  horses,  &c.,  which  re- 
main an  uncertain  length  of  time  from  the 
stable,  the  nose-bag  is  of  great  service.  It  has, 
however,  defects,  one  of  the  most  important 
being  detrimental  to  respiration.  The  material 
of  which  it  is  usually  made  is  strong  and  of  too 
close  texture;  a  coarser  and  pervious  material 


132  Stable  Management. 


would  be  an  advantage,  and  avoid  the  necessity  of 
breathing  over  and  over  again  the  same  air,  by 
admitting  a  current  through  the  meshes. 

Watering. — Much  variety  of  opinion  exists  in 
reference  to  the  quantity  of  water  which  should 
be  allowed  the  horse.  This  must  depend  upon 
circumstances.  To  define  a  special  rule  for  all 
animals  would  be  as  absurd  as  its  carrying  out 
would  be  impossible.  Animals  sometimes  drink 
ravenously,  and  the  cause  will  be  found  to  arise 
from  the  stupidity  of  grooms  in  not  allowing  suf- 
ficient at  proper  intervals.  In  Switzerland,  horses 
are  allowed  water  in  a  separate  tank,  in  their 
stalls,  usually  supplied  from  a  running  stream, 
and  the  results  are  said  to  be  useful. 

The  writer  has  given  the  plan  a  fair  trial 
years  ago,  and  has  found  that  where  a  given  quan- 
tity is  regularly  placed  before  a  horse,  if  no  mor- 
bid thirst  be  present,  the  actual  daily  quantity 
consumed  is  much  less.  But  when  stated  inter- 
vals are  not  observed,  or  irregularity  in  watering 
occurs,  the  quantity  is  often  enormously  increased. 

It  is  from  this  circumstance  that  inconvenience 
and  even  danger  arises,  particularly  when  the 
animal  is  allowed  to  satiate  his  thirst  before 
severe  work,  when  over- heated,  or  the  stomach 
is  previously  overloaded  with  food,  particularly 
when  water  is  very  cold. 

The  practice  of  depriving  hunters  of  water  be- 
fore going  to  cover  is  objectionable.  If  the  rules 
of  feeding  and  watering  are  observed  with  due 


Stable  Management.  133 


regard  to  time,  excessive  thirst  will  not  usually 
occur. 

Harness  horses  and  hacks  used  on  long  jour- 
neys are  greatly  relieved  by  small  quantities  of 
water  in  which  oatmeal  or  barley  meal  is  sus- 
pended, given  when  rest  is  allowed ;  about  two 
quarts  of  water  with  a  handful  of  the  latter  being 
sufficient. 

Horses  at  rest  should  be  watered  at  least  three 
or  four  times  daily. 

The  practice  of  putting  nitre  or  other  saline 
materials  in  the  water,  is  not  to  be  carried  on 
indiscriminately.  The  advice  of  a  veterinary 
surgeon  should  guide  upon  that  question. 

The  purity  of  water  is  a  question  which  should 
always  be  established  where  animals  are  to  be 
kept,  and  particularly  where  new  sources  are 
opened  out.  There  is  frequently  greater  reason 
to  attribute  disease  amoDgst  stock,  and  even 
human  beings,  to  the  water  with  which  they  are 
supplied,  than  is  generally  known. 

In  sinking  wells  never  select  any  place  near 
to  drains  or  ditches,  privies,  and  manure  heaps ; 
avoid  also  gardens  or  fields.  The  danger  which 
occurs  is  traced  to  the  entrance  by  percolation  of 
the  compounds  which  are  formed  as  the  result  of 
putrefaction  of  manure  and  animal  and  vegetable 
matter  in  general.  Not  long  ago  a  whole 
family  was  continually  suffering  from  attacks  of 
fever,  which,  as  usual,  was  for  some  time  attributed 
to  the  atmosphere.  Subsequently  it  struck  the 


134  Stable  Management. 


owner  that  the  water  might  be  at  fault,  and  ac- 
cordingly sent  some  to  an  eminent  chemist,  Dr. 
Penny,  of  Glasgow.  Upon  examination,  that 
gentleman  detected  a  great  proportion  of  sub- 
stances, the  result  of  putrefactive  changes  in 
animal  matter,  which  were  proved  to  have  been 
conveyed  by  the  manure  to  flower  beds  in  the 
garden  upon  the  sides  of  the  well  from  which  the 
water  had  been  used. 

Such  water  has  a  brackish  or  saltish  taste, 
and  is  sufficiently  conspicuous  to  be  easily 
detected  and  lead  to  its  being  avoided. 

Water  may  also  contain  mineral  poisons. 
These,  however,  occasion  serious  symptoms  of  dis- 
turbance, for  which  a  veterinary  surgeon  will  be 
needed  to  give  the  necessary  instructions  at  the 
time. 

Cleanliness. — Too  much  cannot  be  written  or 
urged  upon  this  point.  Many  disorders  and  ail- 
ments can  be  traced  to  a  neglect  of  it.  Holes 
and  corners  which  cannot  be  got  at  regularly 
should  not  be  permitted  in  a  stable. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  food,  dung, 
urine,  straw,  &c.,  used  in  stables  are  all  capable 
of  generating  unwholesome  gases,  by  their  prone- 
ness  to  putrefaction  when  lying  about. 

These  materially  interfere  with  the  circulation 
of  pure  air,  and  in  consequence  the  health  of 
horses  and  men  suffers.  In  order  to  have  them 
removed,  the  bedding  should  always  be  taken 
from  the  sta1!,  and  in  fine  weather  spread  outside 


Stable  Management.  135 


if  possible.  The  dirty  portions  are  to  be  separ- 
ated, the  whole  of  the  floor  and  drains  thoroughly 
swept  out,  and  every  portion  of  refuse  carefully 
removed  to  a  manure  heap  at  a  distance  from  the 
stable. 

Mangers  should  always  be  well  cleansed — 
especially  wooden  ones — after  the  use  of  mashes 
or  soft  food  of  any  kind.  Woodwork  of  all  kinds, 
and  even  harness  and  clothing,  require  cleansing 
after  the  existence  of  contagious  skin  or  other 
diseases.  For  this  purpose  a  solution  of  black 
or  pearl  ashes  may  be  used,  the  strength  however 
being  varied  for  the  several  purposes. 

For  harness,  clothing,  and  painted  woodwork, 
two  or  three  ounces  to  a  pail  of  hot  water  will 
be  sufficient.  But  to  bare  woodwork  the  strength 
may  be  quadrupled. 

Besides  this  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  use 
disinfectants  of  a  special  character. 

For  the  floors,  crude  carbolic  acid  in  solution 
may  be  sprinkled  over  the  surface,  and  the  whole 
afterwards  well  scrubbed  with  hot  water  having 
black  ashes  in  solution. 

A  solution  of  crude  carbolic  acid  is  also 
eminently  serviceable  for  the  mangers  when  con- 
tagion is  feared.  The  proportions  are  about  one 
pound  to  a  gallon  of  water  in  which  soft  soap 
has  been  dissolved,  with  the  use  of  large  quanti- 
ties of  pure  water  afterwards.  A  grand  agent  in 
the  purification  of  the  atmosphere  of  stables  is 
M'DougalFs  disinfecting  powder,  which  should 


136  Stable  Management. 


be  thinly  spread  over   the  stall  floors   and  other 
parts  wherever  dung  or  urine  has  been  deposited. 

The  prices  to  be  paid  for  these  articles  are, 
for  black  ashes  about  2Jd.  per  Ib.  ;  M'DougalFs 
disinfecting  powder,  10s.  per  cwt. ;  and  crude  car- 
bolic acid,  2s.  6d.  per  gallon. 

When  contagious  diseases  are  known  to  arise 
in  a  stable,  remove  the  diseased  animal  at  once. 
Carry  with  him  all  harness,  clothing,  stable 
utensils,  &c.,  which  have  been  used  for  his  pur- 
poses ;  do  not  use  anything  belonging  to  him  for 
another ;  and  those  in  attendance  upon  him  should 
not  go  into  the  stable  where  healthy  animals  are 
confined. 

Lastly,  carry  out  all  injunctions  which  may  be 
given  by  the  veterinary  surgeon  in  attendance. 
He  has  many  strong  reasons  for  enforcing  regu- 
lations which  may  not  be  understood  by  others. 
Upon  these  his  success  depends.  Grooms  should 
therefore  strictly  act  in  concert  with  him,  and 
faithfully  carry  out  his  desires. 

Lighting  of  Stables. — One  of  the  greatest 
causes  of  a  want  of  cleanliness  is  the  absence  of 
light  in  stables.  It  also  gives  rise  to  other  in- 
conveniences. 

When  stables  are  badly  lighted,  or  have  no 
windows,  dirt  accumulates,  foul  gases  are  formed, 
and  the  animal's  health  suffers  in  consequence. 
In  dark  stables  the  men  cannot  see  to  clean  the 
floors  properly,  the  air  becomes  impure,  and 
ventilation  interfered  with.  During  the  night, 


Stable  Management.  137 


when  the  doors  are  closed,  the  animals  are  nearly 
stifled,  they  become  too  hot  and  easily  take  cold. 
They  also  suffer  from  diseases  of  the  eyes  and 
lungs,  and  in  the  end  not  uncommonly  die,  or 
require  to  be  destroyed  on  account  of  glanders. 
In  the  morning,  when  the  doors  are  opened  for 
carrying  on  the  operations  of  the  stable,  the  air 
is  penetrating  and  suffocating,  and  while  these  go 
on,  draughts  of  cold  air  in  winter  produce  bane- 
ful effects. 

Wherever  such  stables  exist  they  should  be 
altered,  large  windows  and  ventilators  put  in  to 
admit  nature's  great  purifiers,  light  and  air ;  they 
are  relics  of  a  barbarous  age,  and  ought  to  be 
razed  to  the  ground  in  numerous  instances. 

Ventilation  of  Stables. — Upon  this  question 
also  there  is  every  conceivable  and  contrary 
opinion.  It  is  a  subject  which  urgently  calls  for 
scientific  memoranda,  in  order  to  apply  the  prin- 
ciples directly  and  practically. 

An  acquaintance  with  the  laws  of  gaseous 
diffusion,  draught,  heat  and  cold,  &c.,  at  once 
shows  that  one  principle  of  ventilation  will  not 
admit  of  being  applied  to  all  buildings.  This  is 
particularly  the  case  with  stables  in  large  towns. 
The  close  proximity  of  other  buildings,  together 
with  their  irregularity  of  form  and  arrangement, 
greatly  interfere  with  plans.  It  is  therefore  a 
matter  of  concern,  and  one  not  to  be  hastily  or 
inefficiently  adopted. 

Buildings    closely   surrounded    by   others    OT 


138  Stable  Management. 


lying  at  low  levels,  those  also  having  hay  lofts, 
always  call  for  a  more  extended  arrangement 
than  isolated  ones.  In  the  latter  also  there  is 
great  danger  to  be  feared  from  reverse  currents 
when  the  wind  sets  in  any  particular  quarter. 

The  object  of  ventilation  is  to  afford  a  plentiful 
supply  of  pure  air  to  every  animal  in  the  building, 
to  maintain  an  uniform  temperature,  and  prevent 
the  occurrence  of  cold  draughts,  or  currents. 
To  effect  these,  various  plans  are  carried  out : — 

1st.  Holes  are  made  in  the  wall  over  each 
horse's  head;  opening  to  the  outside,  being  about 
the  size  of  a  brick.  These  are  either  occupied  by 
wood  or  cast  iron  frames  and  gratings,  or  are 
faced  with  wire  gauze  or  perforated  zinc. 

2nd.  Holes  are  also  made  opposite,  but  near 
the  ground,  and  similarly  protected. 

3rd.  Louvre  boards  are  placed  in  windows  at 
the  side,  or  in  raised  portions  of  the  roof,  which 
also  act  as  a  skylight. 

4th.  Swing  windows  and  skylights  are  also 
used  to  open  at  pleasure. 

5th.  Ridge  tiles  are  raised  at  intervals,  so  that 
a  space  is  formed  under  each,  communicating 
with  the  external  as  well  as  internal  air. 

6th.  Hollow  stones  or  pillars  are  in  some  cases 
placed  in  the  outer  walls,  having  an  opening  to 
the  external  air  at  the  bottom  on  the  outside,  and 
another  at  the  top  on  the  inside. 

7th.  Shafts  or  tubes  of  wood  or  zinc,  &c.,  are 
used  to  discharge  the  foul  air  from  the  roof. 


Stable  Management.  139 

However  good  these  may  appear  in  theory,  it 
is  found  that  in  some  buildings  the  greatest  diffi- 
culty exists  in  procuring  ventilation.  Let  the 
arrangement  and  device  be  what  it  will,  we  shall 
find  that  sometimes  the  air  will  refuse  to  come 
in  or  go  out  through  these  scientific  labyrinths, 
and  at  others  it  ruthlessly  traverses  them  in  fit- 
ful gusts,  and  deeply  offends  by  going  in  an  oppo- 
site direction  to  that  intended. 

The  atmosphere  is  as  insensible  to  human  or- 
ders, as  the  sea  was  to  Canute  and  his  flatterers. 
Any  number  of  shafts  may  be  placed  in  a  build- 
ing, and  all  the  arrangements  named  carried  out, 
but  mortification  will  come  at  the  end.  And  not 
only  mortification  from  an  inability  to  carry  out 
practically  details  which  are  taught  in  theory, 
but  feeling  of  a  more  intense  character,  it  may 
be  as  disease  continues  to  devastate  the  stock  or 
prolong  the  weakness  arising  from  it. 

The  writer  has  succeeded  in  efficiently  ventila- 
ting stables  in  the  following  manner.  Where 
disease  and  mortality  had  extensively  occurred  pre- 
viously, it  is  gratifying  to  state  immense  improve- 
ment took  place.  Coughs  and  colds,  diseases  of 
the  organs  of  vision  and  respiration,  were  reduced 
to  a  minimum  by  the  plan. 

In  stables  where  ventilation  is  effected  by 
hollow  bricks,  &c.,  over  the  animaFs  head,  where 
shafts  are  carried  through  a  hayloft  to  the  roof, 
and  other  appliances  exist,  cold  currents  are  apt  to 
go  in  the  opposite  direction,  and  thus  produce 


140  Stable  Management. 


not  only  defects  in  ventilation,  but  serious  disease 
in  the  animals. 

The  small  amount  of  pure  air  thus  obtained, 
frequently  proves  as  injurious  in  another  way  as 
the  foul  air  within,  thus  establishing  the  dogma  of 
the  couplet — 

"  If  cold  winds  reach  you  through  a  hole, 
Go  make  your  will,  arid  mind  your  soul." 

The  plan,  then,  which  has  succeeded,  was  to 
arrest  the  back  current  and  ensure  a  constant 
discharge  in  one  direction  only,  while  a  fresh 
supply  is  received  in  an  opposite  part  of  the 
building. 

Where  ventilating  bricks  occur,  a  piece  of  thin 
leather  was  nailed  to  the  top  of  the  frame,  on  the 
outside,  so  as  to  form  a  kind  of  valve,  the  lower  end 
hanging  loose  and  floating.  In  long  ventilating 
shafts  which  were  formerly  open  at  the  bottom, 
a  short  tube  of  three-fourths  size  is  made,  about 
a  foot  long,  the  top  being  closed,  and  the  sides 
perforated  by  holes  bored  with  an  inch  and  half 
centre- bit. 

The  holes  are  protected  on  the  outside  by  means 
of  a  flap  of  thin  leather  nailed  at  the  top  edge  to 
form  a  hinge,  and  the  whole  is  then  fitted  inside 
the  original  shaft,  but  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
be  moveable  at  will.  All  cold  currents  are  pre- 
vented from  entering  downwards,  as  they  imme- 
diately close  the  leather  valves,  which  are  very 
light  and  sensitive. 


Stable  Management.  141 


One  great  objection  to  shafts  is,  that  when  the 
stables  have  been  empty  some  time  they  become 
cold,  and  refuse  to  convey  warm  air  after  the  ani- 
inaPs  return.  To  obviate  this  great  drawback, 
the  gas-lights  should  be  placed  beneath  each 
shaft,  the  heat  from  which  raises  the  tube  and 
contained  air  to  a  higher  temperature,  and  thus 
conveys  away  the  foul  air.  This  may  be  only 
required  for  the  space  of  ten  minutes,  or  while 
the  attendants  are  doing  up  their  horses,  after 
which  the  light  may  be  turned  down  low,  or  off 
altogether,  and  ventilation  will  be  found  to  go  on 
very  well  in  most  instances. 

Where  gas-lights  are  not  to  be  had,  the  oil  or 
paraffin  lamps,  &c.  should  be  suspended  beneath, 
which  will  be  found  to  answer  nearly  the  same 
purpose. 

Beat  or  Temperature  of  the  Stable. — This  is  of 
great  importance  to  the  horse  proprietor.  Heated 
stables  usually  indicate  deficient  ventilation,  but 
the  two  must  not  be  confounded. 

Stable  temperature,  it  has  been  stated  by  dif- 
ferent writers,  should  not  exceed  50°  or  60°  of 
Fahrenheit's  thermometer.*  This  is  purely  a 
mistake:  for  how  can  it  be,  when  the  same  instru- 
ment registers  70°  in  the  shade,  that  a  stable  may 

*  This  principle  was  extensively  taught  some  time  ago,  and 
advocated  by  the  writer  on  the  authority  of  a  teacher  from 
whom  it  was  received.  He  has  now,  however,  grave  reasons 
for  questioning  its  accuracy. 


142  Stable  Management. 


be  kept  ten  degrees  lower,  without  incurring  great 
currents  sufficient  to  turn  a  windmill? 

Temperature  of  the  atmosphere  inside  a  build- 
ing will,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  be  regu- 
lated by  the  temperature  of  that  on  the  outer; 
and  the  principle  involved  is  to  preserve  as  much 
as  possible  an  equal  condition,  by  increasing  the 
discharge  of  air  rarified  by  respiration,  &c.  But 
in  this  there  may  be  some  difficulty,  as  under  all 
circumstances  in  summer,  when  the  heat  is  great 
and  air  still,  that  which  replaces  the  discharged 
portions  received  from  the  outside  must  be  quite 
as  hot.  To  state  that  a  stable  is  always  to  be 
kept  at  50°  or  60°  is  simply  absurd.  Such  may 
answer  very  well  for  winter,  but  cannot  be  main- 
tained in  summer. 

The  temperature  of  a  stable  will  materially 
affect  all  new  comers.  Horses  that  have  been, 
out  at  grass,  should  never  be  brought  into  stables 
where  others  are  confined.  The  only  safe  prac- 
tice is  to  put  them  first  into  a  shed  or  hovel,  and 
gradually  introduce  them  to  work  and  the  stable 
at  the  same  time.  It  has  been  truly  observed, 
that  under  neglect  of  these  precautions  the 
animal  is  likely  to  suffer  far  more  than  by  being 
exposed  to  the  contrary  changes. 

In  all  cases  regulate  the  temperature  of  the 
stable  by  allowing  foul  air  to  escape  effectually, 
without  establishing  currents  over  the  animals. 
In  summer  the  temperature  may  be  considerably 
elevated  above  60°,  but  nevertheless  the  atmo- 


Stable  Management.  143 


sphere  may  be  rendered  quite  as  pure  as  can  be 
expected,  and  to  reduce  that  temperature  would 
be  impossible. 

The  object  of  maintaining  a  cool  state  of  the 
temperature  in  buildings  is  to  promote  healthy 
respiration,  purification  ,of  the  blood,  .and  venti- 
lation. 

Grooming  or  Dressing. — I  must  here  refer  my 
readers  to  page  104  of  Part  I.  for  certain  facts 
in  connexion  with  this  portion  of  stable  manage- 
•ment. 

With  regard  to  implements  for  the  purpose 
but  little  need  be  said.  They  are  well  known  to 
most  persons.  It  is  to  their  proper  use  that  our 
(remarks  will  apply  in  greatest  force. 

The  curry-comb  is  intended  for  use  when  the 
coat  is  clapped  to  the  skin  and  glued,  as  it  were, 
by  the  products  of  perspiration.  It  may  be  used 
aleo  to  the  dirty  legs  of  cart-horses  when  dry, 
or  to  the  bodies  when  the  old  coat  is  to  be  gra- 
dually removed.  But  grooms  should  be  warned 
against  using  it  with  too  much  roughness,  as  the 
animal  is  irritated,  and  temper  not  uncommonly 
spoiled,  while  injuries  are  sometimes  inflicted. 

The  main  use  of  the  curry-comb  is  to  clean  the 
brush ;  which,  used  by  the  right  or  left  hand, 
according  to  circumstances,  is  lo  be  plied  with 
vigour. 

The  body  brush  is  oval  in  outline  -and  provided 
with  a  strap  across  the  middle,  through  which 
the  working  handds  put.  >A  'great  fault  in  many 


144  Stable  Management. 

of  these  brushes  consists  in  the  bristles  being  too 
weak  and  too  close.  They  thus  fail  to  reach  the 
skin. 

The  dandy,  or  whalebone  brush,  is  a  most  use- 
ful agent  in  removing  loose  and  rough  dirt  from 
the  body  and  legs,  mane  and  tail,  and  should 
deservedly  find  a  place  in  more  stables  than  it 
does. 

The  wisp  is  made  of  straw  and  also  soft  hay — 
the  former  is  to  be  used  for  rough  purposes, 
while  the  later  is  damped  and  used  at  a  later 
stage. 

The  rubber  consists  of  linen  or  flannel, 
usually  the  former,  made  up  like  a  towel,  having 
a  loop  that  it  may  be  hung  up  when  done  with. 
Many  grooms  use  also  two  chamois  skins,  or  wash 
leathers — the  one  for  wet,  the  other  for  dry 
purposes. 

The  mane  comb  should  not,  in  my  opinion,  be 
used  to  the  same  extent  as  is  frequently  done. 
The  dandy  brush  will  perform  the  major  part  of 
the  work  of  the  mane  comb,  and  the  hair  of  tail 
and  mane  suffer  much  less.  In  fact,  there  are 
stables  where  owners  do  not  permit  the  use  of  a 
comb,  and  the  appearance  of  those  graceful  appen- 
dages to  the  horse  may  defy  all  comparison. 

The  constant  use  of  a  comb  reduces  the  hair 
too  much,  and  proves  profitable  at  the  time  when 
the  "  rag  man"  or  "  general  pick  up"  comes 
round,  hence  its  common  use.  If  the  mane  or 
tail  becomes  too  luxuriant  under  the  use  only  of 


Stable  Management.  145 


a  brush,  it  can  be  thinned  in  a  legitimate  manner ; 
but  this  is  not  frequently  required. 

Foot  pickers  are  required  to  remove  imprisoned 
stones  or  other  objects  from  the  feet  after  jour- 
neys, and  water  brushes  for  washing  them. 

After  this  enumeration  of  stable  tools,  and  the 
groom  is  provided  with  a  requisite  number,  the 
rest  depends  upon  himself.  The  appearance  of  a 
horse  always  reflects  the  character  of  the  groom ; 
no  better  test  need  be  resorted  to. 

A  certain  gentleman,  well  known  for  his 
superior  stable  management,  when  asked  by  the 
writer  how  many  grooms  he  kept,  replied,  "  Three 
helpers  and  one  groom ;  that  groom  is  myself.  I 
look  on  and  have  the  things  done  in  proper  order. 
That  is  the  reason  you  are  able  to  admire  the 
clean  and  tidy  state  of  the  place  and  animals." 

On  another  occasion  a  smart  young  fellow 
stepped  up,  gave  the  usual  salutation,  and  said, 
"  I  hear,  captain,  you  require  a  young  man  in 
your  stable,  I  have  come  after  the  place,"  and 
went  on  to  say  a  great  deal  about  last  place, 
character,  &c.  The  captain  having  heard  him 
out,  said,  "  Well,  my  man,  I  do  not  doubt 
one  word  of  what  you  have  said ;  but  let  me  see 
the  horses  you  have  been  looking  after,  aud  I 
will  at  once  inform  you  whether  I  can  take  you 
or  not." 

Good  grooming  removes  dirt  and  the  products 
of  perspiration  from  the  skin,  which  if  allowed  to 
remain  obstructs  natural  and  healthy  functions 

L 


146  Stable  Management. 


and  endangers  health.  The  proof  that  horses  are 
well  groomed,  is  shown  by  the  clean,  shiniiig  skin 
and  absence  of  dirt  on  the  finger  when  it  is 
passed  over  the  hair.  The  operation  not  only 
removes  dirt,  but  causes  a  quickened  circulation 
of  blood  in  the  skin.  This  helps  to  remove  by 
perspiration  useless  parts  from  the  body,  and  gives 
further  nutrition  to  the  skin  and  hair,  hence  the 
improved  appearance,  better  health,  and  con- 
sumption of  a  less  amount  of  food  than  in  other 
horses. 

Dressing  is  usually  carried  on  in  successive 
stages. 

First,  the  curry-comb  is  carefully  used  to  all 
parts  when  the  hair  is  matted  and  glued  down, 
the  direction  being  in  that  of  the  hair  itself. 

Second,  usually  the  straw  wisp  or  dandy  brush 
to  the  whole  of  the  body.* 

Third,  the  body  brush  in  one  hand  and  the 
curry-comb  held  in  the  opposite,  to  remove  dirt 
from  the  bristles.  The  brush  also  goes  over  the 
whole  of  the  animal  in  a  thorough  manner. 

Fourth,  the  damp  hay-wisp  also,  applied  with 
a  will. 

Fifth,  the  dandy  brush  to  mane  and  tail,  and 

Lastly,  the  rubber,  to  use  the  whole  of  which 
occupies  fully  one  hour. 

The  operation  of  dressing  horses  should  always 
be  set  about  as  soon  as  possible  after  entering 

*  In  hunting  stables,  this  is  the  first  operation.  The 
curry-comb  is  not  used  to  the  skin. 


Stable  Management.  147 


the  stable  in  the  morning,  excepting  of  course 
while  horses  are  eating  their  provender  and  when 
required  to  go  out  to  exercise. 

A  good  daily  grooming  is  absolutely  necessary 
independent  of  that  which  is  required  after  com- 
ing from  work.  Those  animals  which  have  not 
been  out  of  the  stable  since  exercise  need  only 
their  clothing  removed,  dressed  with  the  cloth  rub- 
ber, and  reclothed. 

The  operation  should  if  possible  be  always 
conducted  in  an  outhouse  or  shed  for  the  pur- 
pose. Grooming  in  stables  is  prejudicial,  and 
should  be  avoided  on  the  score  of  health. 

Washing  the  Legs. — The  use  of  water  in  wash- 
ing horses'  legs  is  often  very  much  abused. 
Without  care  nothing  produces  more  inconve- 
nience. 

In  many  places  the  blessings  of  pure  water 
have  been  extolled  and  received  as  a  cure  almost 
for  everything,  and,  acting  upon  the  belief,  the 
converts  imagine  that  they  "  cannot  have  coo 
much  of  a  good  thing."  Results  are,  however, 
against  the  supposition.  The  evil  consequences 
are,  cracked  heels,  swelled  legs,  grease,  &c.,  all  of 
which  may  be  avoided  in  ninety-five  cases  out  of 
a  hundred. 

In  many  stables  visited  by  the  writer,  the 
horses  when  returning  from  work,  cold,  tired,  and 
hungry,  are  compelled  to  stand  some  minutes 
while  each  leg,  almost  to  the  middle  of  the  body 
in  very  dirty  weather,  is  drenched  with  water  from 


148  Stable  Management. 


a  hose.  From  this  cause  a  man  is  almost  con- 
stantly kept  to  dress  the  legs,  which  are  un- 
usually affected.  In  one  establishment,,  from  out 
of  nearly  one  hundred  and  twenty  horses,  one-third 
had  to  be  thrown  off  work  in  consequence  of 
internal  disease  arising.  Carriage  horses  and 
hacks  suffer  much  from  cracked  heels,  while  their 
breed  defends  them  frequently  from  grease.  All 
this  comes  from  the  treatment  to  which  they  are 
subjected  afterwards. 

To  the  mere  washing  of  horses''  legs,  if  con- 
ducted properly,  none  can  offer  objection.  In 
wet  dirty  weather,  when  the  hair  is  matted  with 
mud,  no  animal  can  rest  comfortably  with  such 
an  accumulation  about  them.  If  allowed  to 
remain,  the  sand  and  grit  is  moved  during  exercise 
to  the  wrinkles  of  the  skin  about  the  joints  and  the 
parts  are  chafed,  soon  becoming  raw,  and  pre- 
senting obstinate  sores.  By  all  means  let  the 
filth  be  removed  as  quickly  as  possible,  using  in 
summer  cold,  and  in  winter  warm  water.  A 
good  brush  with  a  small  quantity  of  soap  will 
also  be  required. 

Next  press  out  the  superfluous  water  and 
briskly  rub  with  coarse  towels  kept  for  the  pur- 
pose, and  put  loosely  a  bandage  upon  each  leg  as 
high  as  the  parts  that  have  been  washed,  which 
should  scarcely  ever  be  above  the  knees  or  hocks. 
This  process  will  very  certainly  limit  the  number 
of  cases  of  cracked  heels,  grease,  &c.,  all  of  which 
occur  from  the  amount  of  cooling  to  which  these 


Stable  Management.  149 


parts  are  exposed  when  wet.  If  any  person 
wishes  to  test  the  truth  of  this  statement,  let  him 
go  out  of  doors  with  his  head  and  hair  fresh  from 
beneath  a  stream  of  water.  The  experiment  may 
be  repeated  from  day  to  day,  but  like  the  horse's 
it  will  be  found  he  will  never  become  so  hard  as 
to  be  able  to  defy  the  consequences. 

We  frequently  hear  in  stables  the  directions 
given  to  "  be  sure  and  rub  the  legs  dry.""  Who- 
ever gives  such  instructions,  cannot  be  aware  of 
the  impossibility  almost  which  they  require, 
unless  men  and  horses  are  entirely  deprived  of 
rest.  The  easiest  and  most  economical  method 
is  decidedly  the  use  of  flannel  or  linen  bandages. 
For  cart-horses  a  coarse  kind  of  material  is  ob- 
tained, low  in  price  and  exceedingly  strong,  com- 
monly used  to  make  wrappers  for  linen  goods, 
called  «  pack  sheet." 

Bandages  are  usually  required  about  four 
yards  long  and  three  to  five  inches  wide.  At 
one  end  the  corners  are  turned  in  and  stitched 
down,  and  upon  the  narrow  part  is  also  stitched 
a  piece  of  tape  doubled,  so  as  to  allow  the  use  of 
the  free  ends  for  tying. 

The  usual  plan  is  to  take  a  piece  of  flannel  or 
other  material  of  the  requisite  length,  and  tear  it 
up  into  ribbons  of  the  proper  width.  For  large 
cart-horses  they  will  be  required  at  least  five 
yards  long  and  five  or  six  inches  wide.  By  their 
use  the  legs  dry  rapidly  through  the  means  of 
natural  heat,  and  in  this  way  the  groom  will 


150  Stable  Management. 


generally  be   enabled  to  remove   them,  and  rub 
down  the  legs  before  leaving  for  the  night. 

Clothing. — The  object  of  clothing  horses  is  to 
compensate  for  the  loss  of  temperature  from  the 
body  which  naturally  takes  place  in  cold  weather. 
For  this  purpose  woollen  rugs  are  employed,  which 
are  kept  on  the  body  by  means  of  a  roller. 
Hoods  and  breast  clothes  are  also  used  with  ad- 
ditional clothing  as  the  weather  demands,  but  in 
this  sometimes  error  occurs.  Too  much  clothing 
renders  the  animal  sensitive,  by  keeping  up  great 
action  in  the  skin,  while  health  is  prejudiced 
thereby.  In  most  instances,  proper  exercise,  pure 
air,  and  moderate  clothing  will  be  found  most 
conducive  to  health. 

Bedding. — The  material  used  for  bedding 
horses  varies  according  to  the  locality.  That 
most  generally  used  is  the  straw  of  wheat, 
selected  principally  on  account  of  its  brittleness, 
which  prevents  the  animal  getting  his  feet  entan- 
gled and  injury  occurring. 

Oat  straw  is  usually  considered  objectionable 
on  account  of  its  toughness.  Barley  straw  is  too 
dusty,  and  causes  great  irritation  of  the  skin. 

In  wheat  straw  there  is  an  advantage  in  the 
fact  that  beds  made  of  it  are  cleanly  and  com- 
fortable, but  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  expensive  in 
towns.  For  this  reason  tan  and  sawdust  are 
used  extensively  in  some  establishments. 

In  farm  stables  ferns  and  dried  leaves  of  various 
kinds,,  when  obtained  in  abundance,  are  employed. 


Stable  Management.  151 


Pea  and  bean  straw  is  also  used,  and  flags  from 
the  rivers  are  mown  and  dried  for  the  purpose. 

The  service  and  economy  in  each  of  these  sub- 
stances vary  in  accordance  with  the  condition  in 
which  they  are  used,  as  well  as  supply.  That 
none,  however,  are  equal  to  a  straw  bed  few  will 
deny.  When,  however,  the  manufacture  of  ma- 
nure is  estimated,  some  of  these  articles  may  be 
more  profitable. 

In  some  districts  farmers  are  prevented  by 
their  covenant  from  selling  straw  from  their 
farms,  and  this  causes  the  small  quantity  which 
finds  its  way  there  to  fetch  still  higher  prices. 
Under  such  conditions  some  agriculturists  have 
no  objection  to  allow  straw  for  manure  in  return, 
with  the  payment  of  a  small  sum  annually,  to 
defray  the  cost  of  transit. 

It  is  important  to  allow  horses  good  beds. 
They  are  prevented  from  doing  damage  to  their 
limbs  or  skin,  and  besides,  rest  much  better,  and 
thus  is  preserved  greatly  their  usefulness. 

Disposal  of  Manure. — -As  already  referred  to, 
stable  manure  is  greatly  deprived  of  its  obnoxious 
qualities  if  it  is  treated  before  removal  with  that 
useful  agent,  M'DougalFs  disinfecting  powder. 
This  remark  applies  with  no  less  force  to  manure 
after  removal  to  the  tank  or  proper  receptacle. 
Its  proneness  to  decomposition  is  very  largely 
diminished.  The  compounds  which  give  rise  to 
the  formation  of  foetid  and  hurtful  gases  are  at 
once  seized,  locked  up — companionized  with  other 


152  Stable  Management. 


agents  in  the  powder — and  the  whole  remains  al- 
most a  passive  heap. 

This  is  profitable  in  more  ways  than  one. 
While  the  stable  atmosphere  is  rendered  pure  by 
the  use  of  such  an  agent,  the  air  on  the  out- 
side of  the  building  is  prevented  from  receiving 
contaminations  it  would  otherwise  gain  from  de- 
composing manure. 

The  farmer  also  who  gets  it  after  being  so 
treated,  receives  much  benefit  in  the  greater 
amount  of  serviceable  matter  which  is  furnished  to 
his  crops. 

Manure  heaps  should  be  removed  as  far  as 
possible  from  buildings,  as  the  putrefaction  which 
usually  goes  on,  resulting  in  hurtful  emanations 
or  disagreeable  smells,  contaminates  the  air  of  all 
places  where  animal  life  exists,  and  renders  it  un- 
fit to  support  it  for  any  length  of  time  in  a 
healthy  manner. 

When  tanks  or  places  for  manure  are  made, 
care  is  to  be  observed  that  they  are  not  located 
near  wells  from  which  water  is  drawn  for  drinking. 
If  space  will  not  admit  of  this  being  carried  out, 
the  receptacle  should  be  lined  with  bricks  and 
cement,  to  prevent  the  fluid  portions  from  perco- 
lating the  soil,  running  along  drains,  and  then 
finding  their  way  to  drinking  water. 

Clipping  and  Singeing. — These  are  to  be  viewed 
as  necessary  evils  attendant  upon  the  keeping  of 
horses.  There  are  arguments  to  be  adduced, 
strong  in  their  tendency  towards  truth,  and  bid 


Stable  Management.  153 


fair  to  destroy  the  validity  of  the  grounds  on 
which  the  practices  are  based.  There  are,  how- 
ever/others  which  are  equally  strong  in  their 
justification  and  continuance. 

Both  these  operations  bring  about  the  same 
result — viz.,  reducing  the  length  of  the  coat  or 
hairs  over  the  whole  body. 

Clipping  is  performed  by  scissors  and  a  comb, 
and  recently  by  a  newly-invented  machine  which 
bids  fair  to  answer  well  the  purpose. 

Singeing  consists  of  burning  off  the  hair  by 
means  of  a  lamp  charged  with  naphtha,  spirits 
of  wine,  or,  what  is  better,  coal  gas. 

The  merits  of  each  operation  are  considered  to 
be  widely  different.  While  by  the  use  of  the 
new  clipping  machine  a  horse  can  be  deprived 
of  his  coat  in  a  most  incredibly  short  space  of 
time,  simple  division  of  the  hair  is  thought  to 
favour  exudation  or  evaporation  of  the  fluid  nu- 
tritive portions  which  occupy  the  interior.  The 
advocates  of  singeing  claim  an  advantage  by  their 
process  in  which  the  end  of  each  hair  tube  is 
sealed  up  by  the  insoluble  portion  left  upon  the 
end. 

Both  these  opinions  are  worthy  of  being  re- 
membered ;  but  nevertheless  it  may  be  safely 
argued  the  disadvantages  resulting  from  the 
operation  of  clipping  are  certainly  not  covered 
by  that  of  singeing. 

It  must  be  evident  to  all  who  give  considera- 
tion to  the  subject,  that  singeing  has  much  greater 


154  Stable  Management. 


disadvantages  than  even  clipping  under  the  more 
protracted  mode  by  scissors  and  comb.  We  need 
only  mention  that  the  flame  alone  is  sufficient  to 
render  many  horses  very  tedious  and  troublesome. 
Some  will  not  permit  it  to  approach  them,  while 
others  stand  trembling,  and  a  sudden  fit  of  per- 
spiration at  once  proclaims  this  impossible. 

In  singeing  also,  the  skin  is  not  unfrequently 
burned,  eyes  are  damaged,  mane  and  tail  dis- 
figured. And  lastly,  it  is  a  dirty  and  tedious 
operation.  It  answers  well  for  taking  off  the 
thin  hairs  which  continually  shoot  up  during  the 
winter;  but  for  effectually  and  expeditiously  re- 
moving the  coat,  the  machine,  when  in  proper 
order  and  efficiently  worked,  is  decidedly  to  be 
preferred. 

The  policy  of  removing  the  coat  of  horses  in 
winter  has,  as  already  stated,  been  vehemently 
called  in  question.  While  great  respect  is  en- 
tertained for  the  opinions  and  the  writer  who  sent 
them  forth  to  the  world,  we  cannot  admit  the 
constant  baneful  effects  which  are  said  to  be 
attached  to  the  practice. 

Lengthened  experience  has  taught  that  our 
horses  are  kept  in  an  artificial  condition,  and  the 
thick  rough  coat  endowed  by  nature  each  win- 
ter unfits  them  for  that  condition.  This  we 
gather  from  the  fact  that  in  all  cases  of  cab,  hack, 
omnibus,  and  job  horses,  also  hunters,  and  even 
some  cart-horses  with  thick  long  coats,  where 
they  are  worked  during  the  murky  November 


Stable  Management.  155 

month,  without  being  clipped,  coughs  and  colds 
are  most  common.  Frequently  serious  disease 
befals  these  animals,  but  if  they  recover  sufficiently 
to  be  able  to  have  the  coat  removed,  nothing  can 
be  more  remarkable  for  their  good.  We  have 
seen  a  horse,  owned  by  a  gentleman  who  held  these 
operations  in  aversion,  after  being  brought  off  a 
journey  in  a  lather,  stand  with  the  wet  coat, 
literally  starving  through  the  night,  and  his  even- 
ing meal  untouched  next  morning  in  consequence. 
To  stand  shivering  in  the  stable  is  usually  con- 
sidered indicative  of  the  first  stage  of  disease ;  in 
fact,  there  is  but  a  hair's  breadth  between  them ; 
and  we  must  confess  it  is  not  plain  that  a  cold 
wet  coat,  always  inevitable  upon  work  at  these 
seasons,  which  by  scarcely  all  the  rubbing  a  man 
can  bestow  will  not  dry,  can  be  a  greater  luxury 
than  a  dry  and  short  one  suitable  to  an  artificial 
condition  supplemented  by  a  thick  warm  woollen 
rug. 

No  doubt  a  horse  soon  takes  cold  when  his 
coat  is  off  and  he  is  placed  in  adverse  conditions. 
Nevertheless,  a  thick  wet  coat  must  be  equally 
productive  of  colds,  obstructed  perspiration,  and 
far  more  mortality ;  therefore  it  has  very  wisely 
become  the  practice  to  remove  the  coat  of  working 
liorses. 


156 


FEEDING. 

THIS  is  one  of  the  most  comprehensive  subjects 
connected  with  the  keeping  and  management  of 
horses. 

Before  going  into  details,,  we  must  again  refer 
the  reader  to  Parts  I.  and  II.  for  the  intricacies 
to  be  understood.  The  dogmatism  to  which  a 
writer  on  popular  subjects  is  compelled  to  de- 
scend, forbids  the  indulgence  of  going  into  cause 
and  effect.  They  will  therefore  prove  a  ser- 
viceable guide  to  those  desirous  of  pursuing 
the  theory  of  that  which  we  now  take  up  in 
description. 

The  provender  used  for  horses  consists  of  oats, 
beans,  peas,  barley,  lentils,  or  tares,  hay,  straw, 
and  bran.  Besides,  fashion,  and  a  view  to 
economy,  has  led  the  way  towards  introducing 
additional  substances,  as  Indian  corn  or  maize, 
the  locust  or  Carob  bean,  linseed  oil -cake,  con- 
diments or  spicy  foods,  and  with  the  season,  grass, 
clover,  rye-grass,  tares,  potatoes,  turnips,  and 
carrots,  usually  called  vegetable  food. 

Oats  form  the  principal  article  of  diet  for 
horses  in  almost  all  parts.  Of  these  there  are 
many  varieties,  the  most  economical  being  pro- 
bably the  potato  and  Scotch  white  oat.  In 
contradistinction  to  these,  the  most  common  are 
the  English  black  and  the  white  Tartary  oats  ; 


Feeding.  157 


but  in  all  respects  they  are  an  inferior  article  of 
food.  While  the  potato  and  Scotch  oats  are 
short,  plump,,  heavy  in  the  hand,  possessing  thin 
husks,  weighing  from  40  to  46  pounds  per  bushel, 
and  possessing  a  high  percentage  of  nutritious 
matter,  the  black  and  Tartary  oats  are  long,  light, 
and  slender,  their  husks  are  thick  and  bearded 
(or  tailed),  the  proportion  of  meal,  and  conse- 
quently the  nutrition,  is  much  less,  they  seldom 
weigh  more  than  36  pounds  to  the  bushel,  and 
prove  very  inadequate  for  working  horses. 

Good  oats  yield  about  14  per  cent,  of  nutrition. 
They  are  as  a  rule  very  digestible,  and  when 
clean,  dry,  sweet  and  sound,  answer  very  well 
for  all  horses  doing  light  work. 

The  proportion  required  for  different  animals 
varies  in  accordance  with  bhe  work;  but  size 
of  animal  also  calls  for  modification  in  the 
daily  allowance.  Horses  from  15  to  16  hands 
in  light  work  or  exercise  only,  will  do  very  well 
upon  8  or  10  pounds  per  day,  which  may  be 
increased  to  12  pounds  under  greater  work. 
Cart-horses  will  require  12  to  16  or  18  pounds, 
and  wagon-horses  of  large  build  as  much  as  20 
to  25  pounds. 

A  small  quantity  of  cut  straw,  or  hay  and 
bran,  is  advantageously  given  with  the  oats  in 
the  manger  or  nose-bag.  Mastication  is  much 
more  perfect  and  digestion  facilitated  thereby. 
This  equally  applies  to  all  kinds  of  corn. 

It  is  not  necessary  always  to  bruise  oats.     If 


158  Feeding. 


the  horse  is  endowed  -with  his  proper  masticatory 
powers,  no  human  invention  or  appliance  will 
supersede  them.  It  is  more  natural  for  the 
horse  to  masticate  his  food  than  to  receive  it  in 
a  partially  cooked  or  digested  state. 

Among  beans,  the  Lincolnshire  tic  is  the 
favourite  for  feeding  horses.  This  variety  is  small, 
having  a  thin  bright  husk  and  a  highly  nutritious 
kernel,  weighing  heavy  in  the  hand,  and  proves 
a  very  profitable  feed  during  excessive  work. 

The  nutritious  matter  of  beans  amounts  to  as 
much  as  31  per  cent.,  and  they  are  very  advanta- 
geously mixed  with  oats  and  chaff  to  the  extent  of 
one- quarter  or  one-half  by  weight  of  the  former. 
The  weight  of  beans  ranges  from  60  to  66  pounds 
per  bushel. 

As  a  separate  feed  they  are  positively  injurious. 
Under  all  circumstances  they  should  be  combined 
with  other  varieties  of  food,  and  carefully  with- 
held from  idle  horses.  Their  immediate  effects 
are  the  production  of  constipation  and  disorder 
of  the  digestive  organs,  the  end  of  which  is  fre- 
quently fatal. 

In  the  animal  body,  when  properly  administered, 
beans  form  a  very  useful  agent  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  flesh  (muscle),  hence  their  superiority  in 
producing  a  great  amount  of  hardihood.  The 
weight  of  the  body  is  greatly  increased  by  their 
use  in  proper  form  and  qualities,  and  the  general 
health  steadily  maintained  under  greatest  vicissi- 
tudes. 


r~ 

Feeding.  159 


Peas  contain  even  more  nutrition  than  beans, 
which  they  greatly  resemble  in  general  properties. 
They  are,  however,  less  liable  to  produce  dis- 
order of  the  digestive  organs,  being  much  more 
digestible.  White  or  Canadian  peas  are  usually 
preferred,  which  weigh  from  60  to  66  pounds  per 
bushel  in  a  dry  state,  when  they  prove  a  very 
substantial  and  economical  feed  given  as  directed 
for  beans.  The  maple  or  brown  pea  is  also  very 
good  feeding. 

Barley  usually  weighs  when  good  about  56 
pounds  per  bushel,  contains  10  per  cent,  of  nutrition, 
and  68  of  fatty  matter.  It  forms  a  most  useful 
agent  with  other  kinds  of  food,  is  highly  diges- 
tible, and  promotes  their  digestibility  and  assimi- 
lation. For  sick  and  convalescent  animals,  a 
small  quantity  of  barley  which  has  been  boiled 
sufficiently  to  swell  and  burst  each  grain,  and  de- 
prived of  its  water,  proves  acceptable  when  the 
digestive  powers  are  weakened  and  prostrate. 

Tares  or  Lentils  are  not  so  commonly  used  as 
the  preceding.  Their  principal  use  appears  to 
be  for  producing  a  summer  green  crop,  and 
horse  feeders  with  few  exceptions  know  little  of 
them  in  other  respects.  They  weigh  from  65  to 
70  pounds  per  bushel,  contain  as  much  as  33  per 
cent,  of  nutrition,  are  very  digestible,  and  prove 
admirable  agents  for  increasing  the  amount  of 
muscle-producing  principle  of  a  mixture  of  corn. 

They  are,  however,  unpalatable,  being  bitter; 
and  on  this  account  are  not  relished  when  given 


160  Feeding. 


alone.  To  use  them  with  advantage  oats,,  peas, 
barley,  bran,  and  chaff  should  be  given  with 
them,  which  forms  a  most  nutritious  and  easily 
assimilable  mass  for  hard-working  animals. 

Hay  and  straw  with  bran,,  are  articles  used 
entirely  for  the  purpose  of  giving  bulk  to  the 
forms  of  food  which  occur  in  grain,  See.,  and  also 
on  account  of  their  mechanical  action  on  the  coats 
of  the  digestive  organs.  By  their  use  the  food  is 
more  perfectly  masticated  and  digested,  and 
healthy  action  maintained  with  greater  per- 
sistence and  regularity. 

Hay  very  frequently  proves  no  better  or  more 
economical  than  oat  straw ;  much  depends  upon 
the  mode  in  which  it  is  gathered.  If  allowed  to 
stand  until  the  seeds  are  ripe,  greater  part  is 
shed  upon  the  ground;  and  as  they  then  contain  all 
the  nutrition,  that  which  remains  is  not  worth  the 
money  usually  paid  for  it.  Nutrition  exists  in 
good  upland  hay  to  the  extent  of  32  or  13  per 
cent.,  but  in  other  varieties  not  more  than  6  or  8 
per  cent,  is  to  be  found. 

The  quantity  allowed  to  each  horse  is  from  12 
to  24  pounds.  Greater  economy  is  to  be  main- 
tained by  cutting  up  the  hay  and  mixing  with  it 
one-fourth  or  one-half  cut  oat  straw.  When 
given  in  the  long  or  uncut  state,  much  waste 
occurs  by  the  animal  drawing  it  beneath  the 
feet  and  trampling  upon  it.  In  the  cut  state  it 
id  very  closely  consumed. 

Straw  forms  an  indispensable  article  of  diet, 


Feeding.  161 


particularly  among  cart-horses  and  those  used  in 
cabs,  omnibuses,  &c.  Oat  straw  is  always  to  be 
preferred,  which  in  times  when  hay  is  very  dear 
or  scarce,  may  very  properly  take  its  place. 
It  is  possessed  of  nutrition  to  the  extent  of  6  per 
cent.,  but  this  principle  is  not  looked  at  primarily. 
Straw  should  always  be  given  cut  into  chaff.  The 
practice  of  giving  unthrashed  straw  to  working 
horses  is  a  most  uncertain  method,  and  greatly 
prejudicial  to  their  working  qualities.  The 
quantity  of  grain  they  receive  is  doubtful,  and  no 
method  can  be  more  destructive  to  the  owner's 
interest  when  work  is  required.  In  farm  stables 
a  great  amount  of  inconvenience  takes  place  from 
the  practice  ;  it  forms  one  of  the  causes  of  disease 
in  the  category,  which  is  a  lengthened  one. 

Bran  contains  as  much  nutrition  as  barley. 
It  is,  however,  very  indigestible,  and  in  conse- 
quence furnishes  none  of  its  beneficial  ingredients 
to  the  system.  Bran  finds  favour  as  a  laxative. 
For  this  purpose  it  is  given  with  other  kinds  of 
food  in  order  to  correct  any  tendency  towards 
constipation  or  accumulation  within  the  intestines. 
Bran  contains  much  siliceous  or  sandy  matter, 
and  to  this  is  due  the  mechanical  irritation  which 
proves  so  very  useful  when  given  with  the  food 
daily.  The  quantity  used  is  from  10  to  14* 
pounds  per  week. 

Among  horses  doing  heavy  work  and  receiving 
a  great  quantity  of  hard  corn,  bran  is  a  most  use- 
ful article,  being  given  as  a  mash  once  a  week — 

M 


162  Feeding. 


viz.,  Saturday  evening.  For  this  purpose  two  or 
three  pounds  of  bran  are  saturated  with  boiling 
water,  scarcely  half  a  feed  of  oats  is  also  added, 
together  with  a  little  linseed  prepared  according 
to  details  which  follow.  The  whole  is  then  allowed 
to  cool,  and  when  at  the  temperature  of  new  milk 
given  to  the  animal.  In  many  well  regulated  town 
stables  this  forms  a  constant  practice. 

In  some  places  the  laxative  qualities  of  bran 
are  believed  to  be  useful  in  removing  calculi  or 
stones  from  the  intestines,  and  on  this  account  it  is 
used  very  extensively.  Having  specially  investi- 
gated this  subject,  we  do  not  think  it  improbable 
that  the  bran  itself  has  much  to  do  with  their 
formation.  Where  it  is  so  largely  used,  containing 
a  quantity  of  dust  also  from  the  floor  of  the  mill, 
these  effects  are  common. 

During  a  recent  conversation  in  London  with 
Mr.  William  Ernes,  M.KC.  V.S.,  Dockhead,  Ber- 
mondsey,  that  gentleman  stated  a  miller  of  his 
acquaintance  once  fed  largely  upon  bran.  The 
result  was  constant  colic  and  irritation  from  cal- 
culi. He  was  advised  by  Mr.  Ernes  to  discon- 
tinue the  bran,  or  give  a  pure  variety  free  from 
dust,  &c. ;  the  consequence  was  that  since  the 
time,  now  some  years  ago,  there  have  been  no 
further  cases.  Buyers  of  bran  should  insist  upon 
i'-  being  free  from  sweepings  from  the  floor,  &c. 
Bran  mashes  are  used  for  animals  suffering  under 
acute  fever  to  replace  corn,  which  would  aggravate 
the  complaint.  They  produce  a  softened  state 


Feeding.  168 


of  the  excrement,,  and  thus  relieve  high  vascular 
action.  Prior  to  the  administration  of  Physic 
they  are  also  judiciously  administered,  whereby 
much  pain  and  irritation  as  well  as  loss  of  time 
is  avoided — a  less  powerful  dose  being  required. 

Bran  mashes  are  not  nutritive,  and  therefore 
should  not  be  given  too  frequently  to  animals 
labouring  under  weakening  ailments.  In  such 
cases  they  prove  positively  injurious,  by  prolonging 
the  disease  and  prostrating  the  powers  of  the 
animal  body.  After  their  use  mangers  should  be 
well  washed  out  with  a  brush  and  hot  water  having 
soda  dissolved  in  it,  to  remove  the  sour  smell  left 
by  the  fermenting  portions ;  otherwise  any  food 
which  is  given  afterwards  will  be  refused  by  the 
animal  and  occasion  waste. 

Linseed  contains  about  24  per  cent,  of  nutritious 
matter,  with  upwards  of  60  per  cent,  of  fatcy  or 
heat-producing  material.  It  is  never  used  alone 
as  an  article  of  diet,  but  proves  eminently  ser- 
viceable given  in  a  state  of  solution  with  other 
food. 

Linseed  is  laxative  and  nourishing.  While  its 
daily  administration  promotes  a  regular  state  of 
the  digestive  organs,  it  also  proves  highly  assimi- 
lative, and  hastens  the  assimilation  of  other 
articles  of  food.  Horses  which  receive  linseed 
usually  look  fresh  and  bright  in  the  skin,  in 
consequence  of  the  special  influence  it  has  upon 
the  bloodvessels  and  secreting  organs  of  that 
part. 


104  Feeding. 


Horse-dealers  and  grooms  who  desire  to  put  on 
a  fine  coat  rapidly,  and  improve  the  general 
condition  of  animals  coming  up  from  the  pasture 
in  a  lean  and  poor  state,  are  well  aware  of  this 
property,  and  therefore  use  linseed.  The  laxa- 
tive qualities  are  due  to  the  presence  of  an  oil, 
known  as  " linseed  oil"  obtained  by  expression 
from  the  seeds.  As  a  constantly  soft  condition 
of  the  dung  of  horses  is  not  a  natural,  but  very  pre- 
judicial state,  care  must  be  exercised  in  order  not  to 
use  linseed  too  much.  By  some  the  oil  itself  is 
used,  one  or  two  tablespoonfuls  being  mixed  each 
night  with  the  bran,  chaff,  and  corn.  Horses 
soon  take  to  it,  and  improve  visibly  under 
its  influence,  but  the  reader  must  be  informed 
that  strength  is  not  produced  directly  by  its  use ; 
on  the  other  hand,  fat  is  laid  down,  and  this  gives 
the  altered  appearance.  Indirectly,  when  good 
food  is  used  at  the  same  time,  the  digestion  and  ap- 
propriation of  the  nutritive  portions  are  carried  on 
with  greater  vigour,  and  thus  the  muscular  system 
is  regenerated  from  time  to  time.  The  form  in 
which  linseed  is  given  to  horses  is  that  of  solution, 
or  as  tea.  It  is  sometimes  termed  "  cree'd  linseed." 
In  some  districts  it  is  placed  in  water  and  boiled 
until  the  capsule  of  each  seed  bursts  from  imbi- 
bition, and  the  whole  becomes  a  thick  mucila- 
ginous fluid.  All  the  trouble,  however,  may  be 
saved,  as  linseed  will  assume  this  form  quite  as 
well  and  as  rapidly  in  cold  water  as  by  boiling. 

The  proportions  are  about  a  pound  of  linseed 


Feeding.  165 


to  one  gallon  of  water.  The  whole  is  placed  in 
a  glazed  earthenware  vessel,  covered  over  and 
allowed  to  stand  until  ready,  about  twelve  hours 
being  sufficient,  during  which  it  may  be  stirred 
once  or  twice.  Half  a  pint  of  this  is  given  to 
each  horse  with  the  evening  feed. 

Two  vessels  having  covers  should  be  used. 
When  one  is  charged  the  other  is  to  be  wall 
steeped  and  cleansed  and  again  charged,  in  oidjr 
to  come  into  use  at  the  proper  time.  The  quan- 
tity made  should  not  last  over  two  or  three  days, 
as  there  is  a  great  tendency  towards  fermentation, 
by  which  the  whole  becomes  very  offensive,  and 
consequently  useless. 

Among  horses  receiving  a  great  quantity  of 
hard,  dry  corn  each  day,  linseed  thus  treated  will 
be  found  very  beneficial,  and  promote  health. 

Linseed  or  oil-cake,  is  somewhat  richer  in  flesh- 
forming  constituents  than  linseed,  but  does  not 
prove  serviceable  as  a  regular  article  of  diet  for 
horses.  The  objects  of  its  use  may  be  clearly 
denned  to  be  for  the  purpose  of  assisting,  like 
linseed,  in  the  assimilation  of  other  kinds  of  food, 
the  production  of  fat,  and,  when  broken  into 
small  pieces,  is  given  to  young  horses  for  the 
purpose  of  hastening  their  growth  and  develop- 
ment. 

Many  animals  refuse  it  altogether;  but  when 
they  do  not,  the  quantity  allowed  should  never 
exceed  a  pound  per  day,  as  it  then  takes  the 
place  of  more  serviceable  materials  and  adds  con- 


166  Feeding. 


siderably  to  the   weekly  cost,  without  affording 
proper  return  for  the  outlay. 

Sheep  and  cattle  partake  of  it  readily;  but 
farmers  make  a  great  mistake  frequently  in  not 
using  it  with  other  kinds  of  nutritive  food  at  a 
much  earlier  period,  by  which  many  diseases  in- 
cidental to  their  stock  would  be  avoided. 

Maize  or  Indian  corn  has  not  proved  very 
useful  as  an  article  of  diet  for  horses.  On  the 
contrary,  great  derangement  and  disease  have  been 
produced  in  many  stables,  principally  from  the 
presence  of  a  great  quantity  of  water,  as  well  as 
having  irritative  properties. 

Maize  contains  11  or  12  per  cent,  only  of 
nutrition,  and  forms  a  very  suitable  article  of  diet 
with  many  others  for  pigs,  cows,  oxen,  sheep,  Sec. 
When  used  for  horses  the  quantity  should  be 
small,  mixed  with  an  abundance  of  beans,  peas, 
or  lentils,  to  reduce  their  stimulative  and  other 
properties,  and  always  rejected  if  not  dry  and 
good. 

The  locust  or  carob  bean,  imported  from  the 
East,  forms  one  of  the  principal  ingredients  of 
condimental  foods.  As  an  article  of  diet  it  is  not 
rich  in  nutritious  or  flesh-forming  constituents, 
from  7  to  9  per  cent,  only  being  present.  The 
chief  ingredients  are  mucilage  and  sugar,  upon 
which  its  fattening  properties  depend.  Nor  does 
it  prove  digestible.  Like  beans,  peas,  Indian 
corn,  and  lentils,  all  of  which  are  enclosed  in  a 
strong  shell  which  greatly  resists  the  action  of  the 


Feeding.  167 


fluids  of  digestion — they  should  always  be  split, 
that  the  internal  portion  or  kernel  may  be  acted 
upon,  and  never  given  alone  or  in  large  quantities. 
They  are  apt  to  accumulate  in  the  intestines, 
where  they  set  up  disorder  and  remain  almost 
unacted  upon  for  a  considerable  time,  until 
severe  and  intractable  diarrho3a  comes  on,  and 
from  which  death  may  result. 

A  large  firm  not  long  ago,  desirous  of  saving 
money,  began  the  wrong  way,  by  purchasing 
locust  beans  and  lentils  mixed  with  all  kinds  of 
unknown  rubbish.  These  were  given  indiscrimi- 
nately to  all  the  animals  while  doing  the  hardest 
work.  The  digestive  organs  failed  to  extract 
the  nutritious  portions,  disorder  fell  among  them, 
and  several,  after  only  24  hours'  illness,  died, 
indicating  all  the  signs  of  a  blood  poison.  In 
former  times,  when  little  or  no  attention  was 
paid  to  the  feeding  of  horses,  such  an  occurrence 
would  have  been  looked  upon  as  an  epidemic,  and 
met  by  bleeding  and  physicking  the  whole  of  the 
healthy  animals,  by  which  the  mortality  would 
doubtless  be  increased.  In  this  case  the  sagacity 
of  the  gentleman  who  was  consulted  immediately 
caused  a  detection  of  the  error,  and  thus  put  a 
stop  to  the  destructive  disorder. 

Condiments. — Many  of  these  compounds,  all 
said  to  possess  wonderful  properties,  are  at  present 
appearing  in  the  market.  Their  principal  com- 
position appears  to  be  oil-cake,  ground  locust 
beans,  fenugreek,  sulphur,  common  salt,  &c. 


168  Feeding. 


Consumers  of  condiments  are  not  usually  aware 
that  when  they  pay  the  high  price  charged  for 
them  a  considerable  portion  goes  to  provide  the 
attractive  bills  and  woodcuts  which  are  so  exten- 
sively circulated,  and  also  that  the  compound  does 
not  possess  the  nutritive  qualities  which  half  the 
money  would  procure  in  the  shape  of  sound  dry 
corn.  They  are  also  not  aware  that  when 
animals  improve  their  condition  by  the  use  of 
condiments,  the  change  is  brought  about  by  the 
consumption  of  an  increased  quantity  of  food. 
Nutrition  is  demanded  to  support  life.  It  is  not 
contained  in  condiments  to  the  extent  required, 
and  as  it  must  be  obtained  in  order  to  keep  up 
life,  the  only  source  is  ordinary  food.  If  any  one 
doubts  the  truth  of  this  remark,  let  him  take  any 
one  of  these  batches  of  condimental  nonsense 
and  keep  a  working  animal  upon  nothing  else, 
excepting  hay  or  straw  chaff,  and  he  will  soon 
have  to  pay  for  the  result. 

Condiments  being  usually  sold  as  secret  com- 
pounds, appear  to  inspire  purchasers  with  a  great 
amount  of  veneration.  A  fine  wrapper  and 
naming  placards  exhibiting  a  monstrous  animal 
rendered  ugly  and  almost  unrecognisable,  work 
wonders  among  the  unthinking  portion  of  the 
community,  who  usually  pay  double  for  the  lights 
so  commonly  dazzled  before  them. 

The  time,  however,  is  fast  approaching  when 
the  son  of  the  agriculturist  will  combine  philo- 
sophical studies  with  the  consideration  of  the 


Feeding.  169 


practical  details  of  the  farm.  He  will  be  con- 
versant with  practical  as  well  as  physiological 
chemistry.  The  profits  of  husbandry  will  be  de- 
rived from  the  proper  application  of  science,  and 
in  his  own  hands  will  be  held  the  key  to  his 
success. 

Vegetable  food  consists  of  two  kinds.  One, 
supplied  in  summer,  is  called  the  green  crop,  and 
consists  of  varieties  of  grass,  as  well  as  tares  or 
vetches,  sometimes  called  also  lints,  and  clover. 
The  other  kind  of  vegetable  food  consists  of  roots 
or  tubers,  and  comprises  carrots,  turnips,  and 
potatoes. 

Great  mischief  occurs  among  all  working 
horses  by  the  indiscriminate  use  of  vegetable  food. 
Containing  much  water  they  cause  the  animals 
to  perspire  very  freely,  they  also  urinate  pro- 
fusely, the  food  is  hurried  through  the  body,  and 
being  weakened  thereby,  they  are  liable  to  take  cold 
easily.  They  are  thrown  out  of  condition,  which 
hard  corn  and  proper  exercise  only  make,  and 
the  profits  and  peace  of  mind  of  the  owner  often 
considerably  endangered  thereby. 

Roots  should  always  be  given  very  sparingly, 
every  bit  of  dirt  carefully  washed  off ;  and  in  the 
case  of  turnips  and  potatoes  the  peel  or  rind 
pared  away,  as  this  portion  proves  very  indiges- 
tible. 

Mangold-wurtzel  and  Kohl  Rabi  are  also  used 
occasionally,  but  our  previous  remarks  apply  to 
them  also.  Among  sick  animals,  particularly 


170  Feeding. 


when  suffering  from  low  debilitating  diseases,  as 
influenza,  strangles,  &c.,  and  during  convalescence, 
the  roots  prove  very  useful.  They  are  cooling 
and  laxative,  and  furnish  to  the  blood  those 
materials  which  disease  has  taken  from  that  fluid, 
but  they  require  to  be  given  in  small  quantities 
and  at  regular  intervals. 

Grass,  clover,  and  vetches  produce  greater 
harm  than  many  suppose.  During  their  use  in 
summer  violent  colic,  sore  throats,  coughs,  colds, 
influenza,  laminitis,  swelled  legs,  &c.  &c.,  occur 
most  commonly  among  our  cab,  omnibus,  and 
cart-horses.  When  animals  are  in  good  con- 
dition, healthy,  and  doing  their  work  well,  it  is 
a  great  mistake  to  change  the  diet  to  green  food. 
In  most  instances  the  voracity  of  the  animal's 
appetite  causes  it  to  replace  natural  corn,  and  the 
whole  of  that  which  months  have  been  required 
to  produce,  is  spoiled  and  sacrificed  in  two  or 
three  days. 

If  horses  are  unfit  for  work  by  reason  of  lame- 
ness, or  operations  and  other  causes,  &c.,  which 
call  for  rest  in  the  summer  season,  the  most 
economical  method  of  keeping  them  is  to  allow 
grass  or  clover,  &c.,  with  oats  under  certain  cir- 
cumstances. To  expect  them  to  work  upon  such 
food  is  to  look  for  an  impossibility,  and  is  entirely 
foreign  to  the  horse  in  an  artificial  condition. 
Green  food  and  roots  contain  in  every  hundred 
parts  from  70  to  90  parts  of  water,  and  little  over 
5  per  cent,  of  nutrition.  During  their  consump- 


Feeding.  171 


tion  therefore,  animals  cannot  be  expected  to  gain 
much  support,  and  it  will  be  seen  at  once  why 
we  claim  for  the  horse  entire  rest  while  subsisting 
upon  them. 

Turning  to  grass. — The  more  we  become 
acquainted  with  the  nature,  habits,  and  require- 
ments of  the  horse,  the  less  favourable  does  the 
practice  of  turning  to  grass  become.  In  addition 
to  the  inconveniences  already  enumerated  as 
arising  from  the  adoption  of  green  food,  there 
are  others  which  prove  more  embarrassing  and 
destructive  to  profits.  The  changes  of  tempera- 
ture, that  of  the  outer  air  being  much  cooler  than 
the  air  of  the  stable,  are  sufficient  after  sudden 
exposure  to  work  great  and  mischievous  results. 
In  addition  to  the  comparatively  innutritious 
nature  of  grass,  as  set  against  dry  food,  the 
animal  is  less  able  to  withstand  the  cold  air  of 
nights,  of  rains,  and  winds.  He  therefore  suffers 
more  or  less,  and  not  uncommonly  comes  up  a 
ee  rank  roarer."  If  greater  fortune  has  been  upon 
his  side,  the  bulky  nature  of  the  food  may  pro- 
bably let  him  off  with  "  broken  wind."  Besides, 
he  has  accidents  to  encounter  from  mischievous 
boys,  a  malicious  companion,  or  a  furious  bull, 
an  opposing  fence  or  hidden  ditch.  At  one  time 
he  stands  shivering  with  his  tail  to  the  wind  and 
pelting  rain,  or  is  exposed  to  the  rays  of  a  scorch- 
ing sun,  tormented  and  harassed  by  stinging  flies, 
from  which  he  finds  no  escape  till  nightfall.  When 
he  should  be  quietly  lying  down  to  rest,  and  to  allow 


172  Feeding. 


of  proper  digestion  going  on,  he  has  not  filled  his 
stomach,  and  is  therefore  compelled  by  the  pangs 
of  hunger  to  roam  about  in  order  to  obtain  his 
food. 

Besides  doing  damage  to  the  pasture  and  to 
his  hoofs,  which  a  hundred  sheep  or  cattle  would 
scarcely  effect,  he  has  sustained  irreparable 
blemishes  from  which  his  value  is  considerably 
diminished.  Taking  these  and  many  other  results 
into  consideration,  it  naturally  occurs  that  there 
is  seldom  any  gain  in  giving  a  horse  a  run  at 
grass  after  being  worked  for  months  on  hard  corn 
and  accustomed  to  the  heated  atmosphere  of  the 
stable,  to  which  in  a  measure  he  is  now  accli- 
matized. When  he  deserves  or  requires  cessation 
from  work,  rest,  absolute  rest,  is  the  object 
sought.  It  may  be  the  lungs  require  exemption 
from  accelerated  respiration  in  consequence  of 
their  tone  and  powers  being  deficient  by  reason 
of  disease.  The  legs  also  demand  that  they  be 
relieved  of  strain  and  all  possible  pressure  in 
consequence  of  tendons  suffering  from  laceration, 
joints  from  acute  pain  and  inflammation,  and 
muscles  from  damage  done  to  their  substance  from 
various  causes. 

Such  being  the  case,  and  probably  in  addition 
the  system  suffering  from  the  effects  of  weaken- 
ing medicines,  blisters,  and  even  the  firing  iron, 
one  cannot  but  pause  on  the  folly  and  injustice 
inflicted  when  we  turn  out  that  most  useful  ani- 
mal and  subject  him  to  the  very  opposite  treat- 


Feeding.  173 


ment  which  his  case  and  value  demands.  If  the 
reader  should  possess  an  old  animal  whose  services 
are  no  longer  required,  and  upon  their  account 
or  pleasurable  associations  it  is  desirable  that  he 
should  be  allowed  to  spend  his  days  in  freedom, 
after  the  usual  preparation  there  can  be  no  di- 
rect harm  in  his  doing  so.  In  a  short  time  he 
will  become  as  comfortable  and  satisfied  with  the 
cool  air  of  heaven  as  he  previously  was  with  that 
of  the  stable.  Nature  will  soon  provide  a  coat 
suitable  for  all  weathers,  and  in  his  paddock,  with 
only  a  bare  shed,  visit  him  when  you  will,  he 
comes  with  a  freshness  and  grace  which  contrasts 
strangely  with  the  states  we  have  been  consider- 
ing. He  has  taken  a  fresh  lease  of  life,  and  ap- 
pears all  youth  and  buoyancy.  The  poor  stiff  and 
decrepit  favourite  now  gambols  like  a  foal,  and 
has  thrown  aside  the  accumulations  of  age,  and 
in  such  a  condition,  which  resembles  the  natural 
one  most  closely,  he  may  live  for  years. 

With  the  working  horse  matters  are  different. 
The  changes  are  too  severe  upon  his  constitution. 
He  no  sooner  has  become  inured  to  the  change 
of  climate  and  other  vicissitudes,  than  he  is  called 
upon  to  make  another  sacrifice  of  his  constitu- 
tion, and  subject  himself  again  to  the  oppressive 
atmosphere  of  his  town  stable. 

In  all  fairness  such  an  animal  should  not  be 
turned  loose  upon  pasture  land.  A  large  loose 
box  and  yard  is  best,  in  which  for  the  sake  of  his 
health,  present  and  future,  his  feet  and  legs,  lungs 


174  Feeding. 


and  digestive  organs,  lie  can  exercise  himself  pro- 
portionately with  the  food  he  gets,  rest  and  be 
thankful,  preserved  from  cold  winds,  rain,  or 
the  burning  sun.  Here  his  green  food  is  to  be 
brought  along  with  water  and  a  feed  of  corn  in 
most  instances,  and  with  a  dry  bed  beneath  him, 
a  few  weeks  may  be  spent.  He  thus  requires 
less  time  to  be  got  again  into  condition,  maintains 
it  better  afterwards,  and  gives  greater  satisfaction 
in  the  end. 

With  some  proprietors,  turning  a  horse  to  grass 
is  tantamount  to  avoiding  expense  under  a  false 
belief  in  the  efficacy  of  the  plan.  Horses  that 
are  lame  or  ill  and  recovering  slowly,  are  usually 
trotted  off,  along  with  others  not  required  for  a 
week  or  two,  to  the  pasture.  Such  men  can  have 
no  idea  what  harm  they  bring  upon  themselves ; 
they  can  have  no  idea  what  condition  is,  and  the 
cost  required  to  establish  it  in  the  horse's  body, 
or  they  would  not  so  lightly  sacrifice  it.  Under 
such  treatment  we  no  longer  feel  surprised  at  the 
cases  of  swelled  legs,  grease,  cracked  heels,  can- 
ker, inflammation  of  the  lungs,  pleurisy,  fatal 
colic,  surfeit,  &c.,  which  crowd  the  stables  with 
victims  under  some  kinds  of  management.  Our 
experience  too  plainly  shows  the  truth  of  all  this, 
and  we  feel  we  should  be  unfaithful  to  our  trust  if 
silence  was  maintained  upon  the  point.  It  is  mis- 
taken economy.  Such  management — it  scarcely 
deserves  the  name — is  always  productive  of  more 
loss  and  inconvenience  than  profit,  as  is  demon- 


feeding.  175 


strable  too  frequently  in  very  plain  and  unmis- 
takeable  ways. 

Regularity  in  Feeding. — In  all  horse  establish- 
ments the  system  of  feeding,  to  be  successful, 
should  be  regulated  by  definite  rules  having  special 
reference  to  the  kind  and  quantity  of  work  to  be 
performed. 

The  hours  also  of  feeding  should  be  strictly 
adhered  to.  The  latter  is  highly  necessary  on 
account  of  the  small  size  of  the  horse's  stomach 
and  rapidity  of  digestion.  Upon  this  account 
horses  should  not  as  a  rule  be  fed  fewer  than  four 
times  a  day.  With  hunters  and  other  horses 
when  out  during  unexpected  times,  this  cannot 
always  be  accomplished ;  but  with  town,  farm, 
cab,  and  omnibus  horses,  it  may  be  greatly  over- 
come by  the  use  of  the  nose-bag. 

When  work  is  light  and  calls  for  little  exertion 
of  muscular  power,  horses  may  be  fed  economically 
upon  oats,  with  Indian  corn,  chaff,  and  bran. 
Every  12  pounds  of  oats  being  mixed  with  4 
pounds  of  maize,  2  pounds  oi  bran,  and  14  or  16 
pounds  of  hay,  or  hay  and  straw  chaff.  These 
quantities,  which  are  allowed  each  day,  will  do  for 
a  horse  of  15  or  16  hands,  but  larger  horses  will 
require  a  few  pounds  more. 

When  work  begins  to  be  excessive,  it  must  be 
the  care  of  horse-keepers  and  those  in  charge  to 
furnish  a  food  containing  greater  nutrition.  For 
this  purpose,  beans,  peas,  and  lentils  may  be 
taken,  and  mixed  with  barley  in  different  propor- 


176  Feeding. 


tions,  all  being  bruised  separately.  Chaff  and 
l/fan  also  will  be  required  to  give  bulk  to  the 
whole. 

If  prices  of  grain  fluctuate  much  or  rise  con- 
siderably, by  substituting  the  more  nutritious 
kinds  of  corn,  horses  may  be  fed  for  much  less 
money.  The  details  which  furnish  information 
on  this  matter  will  be  found  at  pages  89  and 
93  f  wQich  the  reader  is  referred  for  full  infor- 
mation, 

mere  is  scarcely  any  department  ot  norse 
management  wherein  there  exists  greater  scope 
for  the  exercise  of  economy  as  compared  with 
present  modes.  Nor  is  there  another  where  by 
the  exercise  of  that  economy  a  greater  saving  is 
to  be  made,  by  not  only  avoiding  useless  expen- 
diture but  also  disorder,  disease,  and  death,  which 
now  stalks  with  ghastly  grin  and  fearful  strides 
through  many  parts  of  our  land. 

There  is  one  other  question  which  is  frequently 
neglected  by  horse  proprietors.  This  is  the 
quality  of  provender.  A  short  time  ago,  we  were 
standing  in  conversation  with  an  extensive  owner 
when  a  grain  merchant  stepped  up  and  offered 
oats,  beans,  wheat,  maize,  and  lentils  for  sale. 
Upon  examination  these  articles  were  found  to  be 
very  inferior,  mixed  with  all  kinds  of  dirt,  and 
also  soft  as  they  could  be.  The  prices  were  asked 
and  given,  and  our  opinion  was  requested.  We 
remarked,  "  The  samples  were  very  inferior,  da- 
maged, and  very  wet,  and  certainly  not  fit  for 


Feeding.  177 


working  horses."  The  owner  remarked,  "But 
we  boil  these,  and  their  being  wet  and  damaged 
kinds  can  make  no  difference,  as  boiling  makes 
them  more  nutritious."" 

For  the  first  time  then  we  learned  that  to  cook 
food  rendered  it  more  valuable  in  its  strengthen- 
ing properties.  The  operation  appears  to  our 
mind  as  an  attempt  to  smuggle  into  the  horse's 
stomach  such  a  mixture  of  rubbish  that  he  would 
not  swallow  in  any  other  condition.  It  is  a  cloak 
for  the  purpose  of  buying  inferior  corn,  and  in  it 
may  be  looked  for  all  the  causes  of  the  mischief 
which  is  known  among  horses  to  which  such 
trash  is  given. 

Without  good  food,  no  horse  can  maintain  an 
aptitude  for  work.  If  he  is  deprived  of  it  and 
inferior  kinds  are  substituted,  the  body  suffers,  his 
organic  functions  give  way,  and  he  becomes  a 
sufferer  from  disease.  There  is  more  damage 
done  to  studs  from  this  cause  alone  than  from  any 
other,  and  what  is  most  surprising,  owners  are 
not  slow  to  believe  in  this  "  penny  wise  and  pound 
foolish"  system. 

To  arrange  diet  for  horses  is  not  a  difficult 
matter,  nor  is  it  a  thing  impossible.  Hunters 
and  race  horses  execute  a  laborious  kind  of  work, 
which  differs  from  that  of  the  cart,  cab,  or  omni- 
bus horse  but  very  little.  All  require  the  same 
amount  of  stamina  in  order  to  execute  their  work. 

None  grudge  the  former  their  share  of  the  very 
best,  but  for  the  poor  hard-working  dray  horse, 

K 


178  Feeding, 


with  his  equally  unfortunate  companions  in  exile, 
the  cab  and  cart-horse,  anything  will,  it  is  thought, 
do  for  them.  Nothing  is  more  false  than  such 
an  argument.  As  we  grow  older,  however,  and 
with  repeated  opportunities,  the  absurdity  of  the 
system  may  be  shown  up,  and  thus  gradually  com- 
pelled to  disappear  from  its  strongholds. 

Feeding  after  work,  when  the  exertion  has  been 
very  severe  and  prolonged,  is  a  matter  requiring 
great  care.  Among  hunters  and  racehorses 
nothing  can  be  more  marked  than  the  attention 
paid  to  them  when  they  return  to  the  stable. 

It  must  be  apparent  to  all  who  give  the  subject 
any  consideration,  that  after  a  severe  run  with 
hounds,  sharp  race,  or  the  drawing  of  heavy  loads, 
much  wear  and  tear  of  the  whole  system  takes 
place.  It  is  not  merely  the  muscles  which  move 
the  limbs,  but  the  muscles  also  which  regulate 
circulation  of  the  blood  and  digestion  of  the  food. 
In  a  word,  all  are  tired  and  need  rest.  When 
the  hunter  or  racer  arrives  at  his  stable,  so 
well  are  those  in  charge  aware  practically  of  this 
fact,  that  they  avoid  torturing  the  stomach  by 
causing  it  to  perform  unnecessary  labour.  The 
mouth  is  washed  out,  the  face,  nostrils,  and  eyes 
carefully  sponged  with  cold  water,  which  refreshes 
the  creature  almost  beyond  estimate,  and  when 
that  is  done  he  receives  a  quantity  of  warm  oat- 
meal gruel  which  has  been  prepared  during  the 
afternoon.  After  taking  off  the  rough  dirt, 
washing  the  legs,  &c.,  he  is  left  for  a  time.  On 


Feeding.  179 


the  return  of  the  groom,  he  is  cleaned  in  right 
earnest  and  supplied  with  corn  and  hay. 

What  is  the  rule  in  cart-horse  and  other 
stables  ?  In  many  the  horse  is  first  allowed  to 
satiate  an  excessive  thirst  with  cold  water  at  a 
trough  in  all  seasons,  his  feet  and  legs  washed  very 
roughly,  and  half  his  body  wetted  at  the  same 
time.  He  next  is  allowed  to  go  to  his  stall,  and 
during  the  time  he  starves  with  the  washing  he 
is  allowed  to  fill  his  tired  stomach  with  a  large 
quantity  of  food,  while  a  man  teases  him  under 
the  pretence  of  cleaning.  Surely  these  animals, 
which  are  directly  concerned  in  the  building  up 
of  our  colossal  fortunes,  are  worthy  of  a  little 
more  consideration.  If  the  labour  in  which 
they  are  daily  engaged  is  not  productive  of 
amusement,  it  is  certainly  a  source  of  profit  with- 
out which  amusement  could  not  be  afforded.  We 
appeal  therefore  for  a  little  more  consideration 
for  our  four-footed  friend  the  cart-horse  and  his 
allies,  who  in  their  spheres  are  equally  as  useful 
as  any  other  animal,  certainly  an  indispensable 
agent  in  our  social  economy. 

Instead  of  cold  water  supplied  in  hurtful 
quantities,  let  us  suggest  hay  tea,  or  a  little  tepid 
water  with  oat  or  barley  meal  thrown  in.  These 
would  be  far  more  agreeable  to  a  thirsty  horse, 
and  refresh  and  cheer  instead  of  paralysing  the 
stomach.  Hay  tea  is  made  by  pouring  boiling 
water  upon  a  handful  of  good  hay  placed  at  the 
bottom  of  a  pail,  and  covered  with  a  cloth  or  sack. 


180  Feeding. 


After  a  time  cold  water  is  added  to  fill  the  pail, 
when  it  is  given  to  the  animal  at  the  temperature 
of  new  milk. 

In  place  of  the  heavy  food,  such  as  beans,  peas, 
&c.,  we  recommend  for  a  tired  horse  a  few  oats  or 
a  little  barley  which  has  been  steeped  in  hot  water 
for  a  few  hours.  This  is  mixed  with  a  handful 
of  bran,  and  given  on  arrival  in  the  stable  after 
the  hay  tea,  or  meal  and  water.  The  cleaning 
operations  over,  and  beds  put  down,  the  rest  of  the 
food  may  be  given  and  stable  closed  for  the  night. 
By  this  method  the  animals  are  recruited  and  food 
proves  useful,  but  in  tb^  unnatural  systems  so 
often  carried  out,  it  causes  their  destruction  in 
not  a  few  instances, 


181 


EXERCISE, 

ONE  of  the  greatest  sources  of  health  among 
horses  is  to  be  found  in  exercise.  By  that  term 
we  understand  exertion  or  use  of  organs  of  loco- 
motion, as  the  legs,  &c.,  and  other  parts  of  the 
body  more  or  less,  not  strictly  called  work. 
Exercise,  or  the  use  of  the  body,  is  intended  to  be 
engaged  in  at  those  times  when  the  animal  capa- 
bilities are  not  required  for  work.  It  is  a  duty 
which  relieves  from  the  close  and  monotonous  con- 
finement of  the  stable.  Horses  kept  for  a  length 
of  time  without  action  suffer  in  a  variety  of 
ways.  The  circulation  of  blood  is  languid, 
digestion  of  food  retarded,  fluids  which  in  health 
are  formed  in  various  organs  of  the  body  for  the 
purpose  of  changing  substances  and  rendering 
them  fit  for  the  system,  are  not  poured  out 
during  continued  rest  with  sufficient  activity. 
Muscles  become  soft  and  flabby,  and  such  an 
animal  is  thoroughly  unfit  for  work  or  exertion 
of  any  kind ;  he  is  soon  tired  and  knocked  up. 
The  skin  looks  dull  and  rough,  the  bowels  are 
constipated,  and  he  becomes  a  prey  to  disease  of 
various  kinds. 

Exercise  must  not  be  confounded  with  actual 
work.  The  two  are  totally  different.  What 
work  takes  out  of  the  system,  exercise  is  intended 
to  build  up  and  strengthen.  Exercise  stimulates 


182  Exercise. 


all  the  energies  of  the  body  and  promotes  strength 
and  vigour.  It  causes  all  the  tissues  of  the  body 
to  receive  their  support  by  reason  of  the  tone 
given  to  the  circulation  of  the  blood,  and  diges- 
tion and  appropriation  of  food.  Work,  on  the 
other  hand,  goes  farther  than  this,  and  lowers  the 
body — causes  it  to  waste  or  wear  out.  On  this 
account  therefore  exercise  must  be  a  duty  which 
promotes  health  by  stimulating  all  the  animal 
functions,  but  stops  short  of  producing  weariness 
or  exhaustion.  It  renovates  the  body,  and  makes 
it  ready  to  encounter  excessive  and  prolonged 
exertion,  which  we  call  work. 

Exercise  should  be  taken  regularly.  All 
horses  not  intended  to  go  to  work  ought  to 
receive  an  amount  of  exercise  daily.  It  is  not 
necessary  that  the  time  spent  should  always  be 
the  same,  nor  is  it  proper  that  it  be  prolonged  too 
far,  as  it  then  ceases  to  be  useful  and  beneficial. 

Hunters  are  usually  exercised  two  hours, 
and  this  always  immediately  after  the  first 
morning  feed,  each  animal  having  been  quartered 
and  wiped  over.  The  night  clothing  is  to  be  re- 
moved, and  exercising  rugs  substituted. 

Usually  walking  exercise  only  is  taken,  and  in 
most  instances  is  found  to  answer  all  purposes. 
If,  however,  a  trot  is  indulged  in,  horses  should 
never  be  hurried,  or  during  a  canter  put  so  fast 
as  to  "  blow"  them,  nor  should  the  distance  gone 
over  amount  to  more  than  one-quarter  that  used 
for  walking. 


Exercise.  183 


Many  gentlemen  prefer  to  have  their  animals 
exercised  within  call,  and  for  this  purpose 
a  long  covered  ride  is  arranged.  The  stables  of 
many  noblemen  are  built  in  a  square,  the  inner 
sides  of  which  form. a  ride,  the  upper  stories 
being  brought  over  and  supported  on  pillars.  In 
each  case  sawdust,  tan,  or  short  litter  is  spread, 
which  prevents  slipping,  and  the  whole  being 
covered,  exercise  is  taken  in  all  kinds  of  weather. 
The  arrangement  avoids  the  necessity  of  going 
from  home,  and  the  chance  of  meeting  with  acci- 
dents which  attend  the  leading  of  fresh  animals 
along  streets  or  roads,  and  actions  of  grooms  in 
concert  when  beyond  the  eye  of  watchfulness. 

Cart-horses,  those  used  for  cabs,  omnibuses, 
spring  vans,  and  sometimes  even  carriage  horses,  do 
not  receive  exercise  as  frequently  as  they  should. 
Many  of  these  animals  suffer  immediately  when 
confined  to  the  stable  but  even  a  single  day.  It 
is  a  common  thing  to  find  cases  of  weed  or  thick 
leg  occurring  with  unerring  regularity  on  Monday 
morning,  not  unfrequently  also  colic,  and  even 
founder  or  inflammation  of  the  feet.  Why  should 
these  complaints  have  special  predilection  for 
that  day  ?  Simply  because  Sunday  was  a  day  of 
rest.  During  the  week  each  of  these  animals 
has  been  working  hard,  their  bodies  have  been 
wasting,  and  the  food  taken  has  been  appropriated 
to  the  repair  of  that  waste.  But  when  Sunday 
comes,  with  its  cessation  from  all  labour,  the  food 
which  is  taken,  being  of  the  same  quality  and  in 


184  Exercise. 


similar  quantity  as  during  the  week,  cannot  be 
appropriated.  The  same  waste  of  system  is  not 
going  on.  The  food  is  not  required.  It  is, 
however,  taken  into  the  stomach,  and  afterwards 
goes  to  the  blood,  which  becomes  overcharged 
with  nutritious  material,  and  as  there  is  not  time 
to  get  rid  of  it  by  natural  outlets  the  constant 
occurrence  by  unnatural  means  is  inevitable, 
those  means  being  a  diseased  state. 

Such  horses,  although  coming  to  the  stable 
tired  at  the  week  end,  would  be  certainly  bene- 
fited by  a  walk  of  three  or  four  miles  on  Sunday 
morning.  The  time  occupied  would  admit  of  the 
stables  being  thoroughly  cleaned,  the  animals 
would  obtain  fresh  air  instead  of  breathing 
noisome  odours  during  the  operation,  and  in 
many  cases  ward  off  the  attacks  mentioned,  par- 
ticularly if  the  precautions  referred  to  under 
"  mashes  "  were  carried  out,  as  directed  at  pages 
161  and  164. 

When  horses  come  up  from  grass,  straw-yards, 
or  rest  on  green  food,  &c.,  the  amount  of  exercise 
at  commencement  should  be  very  limited,  and 
gradually  increased  until  the  full  amount  is  taken. 
Our  further  remarks  in  connexion  with  exercise 
will  lead  us  to  a  consideration  of  what  is  under- 
stood by 


185 


CONDITION. 

THE  object  of  exercise  is  the  preservation  and 
maintenance  of  that  healthy  state  or  general 
capacity  for  work  which  is  known  in  stable 
technics  as  condition.  To  acquire  it,  good  food, 
pure  water,  well  ventilated  buildings,  scrupulous 
care  and  regularity  in  all  stable  routine,  and 
exercise  in  the  open  air,  are  indispensable. 

Early  morning  is  usually  chosen  among  racing 
and  hunting  grooms,  in  order  to  avoid  the  heat 
of  day,  rabble  of  boys,  or  annoyance  from  any 
other  quarter.  Sometimes  the  exercise  is  ap- 
portioned, one  part  to  the  morning  another  to 
the  afternoon.  This  is  done  frequently  in  winter 
when  hunting  is  stopped  by  hard  frosts,  the 
stable  yard  being  well  covered  with  short  litter. 
It  also  admits  of  other  work  being  carried  out, 
which  would  not  be  done  if  all  the  exercise  were 
taken  in  the  morning. 

The  usual  process  of  getting  a  horse  into  con- 
dition, consists  in  the  use  of  certain  doses  of 
physic.  Some  grooms  go  so  far  as  to  assert, 
"No  horse  can  be  got  into  condition  without 
physic."  Not  long  ago  a  certain  gentleman 
lent  his  name  to  the  statement  that  the  Turkish 
bath  was  the  only  means  whereby  condition  could 
be  obtained.  Practical  experience,  however,  com- 


186  Condition. 


bined  with  philosophical  examination,,  has  proved 
the  fallacy  of  such  reasoning. 

Some  time  ago  the  writer  was  thrown  into 
conversation  with  a  gentleman  holding  these 
tenets  with  extreme  force.  No  argument  could 
shake  the  view  he  held  of  the  necessity  for  two  or 
three  doses  of  physic.  "  It  had  always  been 
the  practice,  and  would  always  remain  so/'  he 
contended.  It  happened  that  an  old  vicious  animal 
belonged  to  the  stud,  to  which  no  man  dare  give 
a  ball,  nor  could  he  be  induced  to  take  any  medi- 
cament in  his  food,  and  the  circumstance  rushing 
to  the  mind,  prompted  the  following  queries  in  a 
way  which  looked  at  first  like  yielding  up  the 
point  and  turning  the  conversation. 

"  By-the-by,  how  many  horses  have  you  1" 

"  The  old  number,  eight/' 

"  Oh  !  is  the  old  gray  alive  yet  ?" 

"  Alive  !  of  course — when  will  he  die  ?  He's 
too  tough,  I  assure  you." 

"  How  long  have  you  hunted  the  old  fellow  ? 
— if  I  remember  rightly,  some  years/' 

"  Yes,  nine  this  season.  He  has  carried  me 
without  a  stumble,  and  cost  me  not  a  fraction 
for  illness.  I  am  never  carried  so  well  as  when 
upon  old  Sergeant's  back.  No  matter  what 
country,  he  goes  pell-mell,  and  I  am  sure  to  be  in 
first." 

"  You  say  he  never  cost  you  a  fraction  through 
illness ;  do  you  mean  me  to  infer  that  he  has 
never  been  ill?" 


Condition.  187 


"  Quite  so." 

"  But  if  he  were  ill,  physic  would  be  of  no 
use  to  him  ;  he  refuses  to  be  balled  if  I  remember 
rightly." 

"  Why,  the  old  un  himself  couldn't  do  it. 
Such  a  vagary  he'll  kick  up  if  you  only  hold  out 
a  ball  to  him.  Oh !  he's  a  cunning  old  dog." 

"Then  allow  me  to  inquire  farther,  if  you 
please,  How  did  you  succeed  in  getting  him  into 
condition  for  hunting  ?" 

The  reader  will  understand  our  friend  was 
fairly  caught  in  his  own  trap,  and  afterwards 
always  maintained  a  perfect  silence  in  reference 
to  the  necessity  of  physicking  a  horse's  inside  out 
for  the  purpose  of  gaining  condition. 

The  Turkish  bath  is  also  by  some  used  under 
the  idea  that  there  is  something  always  to  be  got 
rid  of  which  militates  against  condition,  and  the 
poor  creatures  are  parboiled  and  sweated  un- 
mercifully 

The  art  of  getting  a  horse  into  condition  lies 
totally  apart  from  either  of  these  processes. 
Hundreds  of  horses  are  brought  forward  every 
year  without  them,  and  on  the  score  of  what  can 
be  done,  and  is  done  every  day  of  our  lives,  we 
appeal  for  our  noble  servant,  and  beg  he  may  be 
spared  this  useless  and  aggravating  treatment, 
except  when  illness  demands  it. 

Condition  is  that  state  of  the  muscular  system 
in  which  the  body  is  strong,  healthy,  and  capable 
of  endurance  under  prolonged  action.  Muscle 


138  Condition. 


has  to  be  built  up  and  thoroughly  developed. 
Every  one  knows  the  blacksmith's  arm  or  the  legs 
of  the  danseuse  become  thicker  by  the  exercise. 
Their  action  stimulates  their  growth,  and  when 
after  a  time  they  are  so  developed,  they  may  be 
said  to  be  in  perfect  condition. 

The  muscles  of  the  horse  also  admit  of  this 
gradual  development.  It  is  caused  by  their 
being  regularly  exercised,  and  drawing  to  them 
the  nutrition  from  the  blood  which  has  first  been 
put  into  that  fluid  from  the  food.  Regular 
exercise  causes  the  body  to  rid  itself  of  all  hurtful 
substances.  Good  food  produces  good  muscle ; 
and  unless  there  are  special  circumstances  to 
consider,  nothing  else  is  required  to  produce 
condition,  excepting  regularity  of  system. 

The  effect  of  physic  is  to  weaken  the  system 
and  retard  the  development  of  muscle  and  forma- 
tion of  good  blood.  They  are  similar  to  bleeding, 
but  a  little  less  intense.  Professor  Dick  was  wont 
to  state  in  his  lectures,  that  "  physicking  horses 
in  order  to  get  them  into  condition  is  carried  on 
to  an  absurd  degree,  as  many  as  three  doses  of 
physick  being  given  to  one  animal  prior  to  the 
season  in  the  space  of  a  few  weeks.  The  first 
ball/'  remarked  the  Professor,  "  was  said  to  stir 
up  the  humours,  the  second  to  set  them  moving, 
and  the  third  to  carry  them  off;  and/'  he  naively 
adds,  "  which  it  frequently  did  by  carrying  oif 
the  horse  as  well." 


189 


THE   TURKISH    BATH,   AND    WASHING 
HORSES  AFTER  HUNTING. 

THERE  is  nothing  which  militates  so  strongly 
against  the  success  of  any  newly-introduced 
measure  or  plan  as  its  immediate  indiscriminate 
adoption.  Regardless  of  all  conditions  and  modi- 
fications which  render  the  application  difficult, 
partial,  or  unsuited,  we  frequently  find  people 
rushing  to  embrace  and  hastily  adopt  anything 
new.  At  the  same  time  unsuccessful  use  and 
application  become  evident  day  after  day.  Such 
occurs  in  almost  all  departments  of  daily  life. 
A  new  toy  is  soon  in  the  hands  of  nearly  every 
boy  in  the  nation,  and  often  caused  to  execute 
very  foreign  and  absurd  purposes.  In  medicine 
a  new  pill  or  lotion,  well  advertised  and  garnished 
with  a  dazzling  label,  proves  attractive.  A  simple 
headache  or  a  still  simpler  sore  is  cured,  hundreds 
rush  to  write  their  testimony  on  such  occur- 
rences, and  swear  to  a  great  deal  more,  and  a 
world  wide  popularity  is  obtained.  Believers 
are  also  found  who  never  entertain  the  idea  of 
failure,  and  go  on  fully  convinced  if  these  great 
preparations  do  not  cure  everything,  it  is  not  the 
fault  of  the  composition,  and  are  content  to  live 
in  mystery  and  martyrdom. 

The    Turkish   bath  and  practice   of  washing 


190  Tlie  Turkish  Bath,  and 


horses  have  enjoyed  such  popularity — they  have 
also  endured  degradation  at  the  hands  of  their 
promoters.  In  a  few  accidentally  well  selected 
cases  the  results  of  the  former  were  astounding, 
but  when  news  of  men  dying  in  wet  sheets, 
others  barely  escaping,  and  similar  results  among 
animals  came  to  be  talked  over,  men  looked 
aghast,  shook  their  heads,  and  said  gravely, 
"  Ah  !  this  will  not  do."  As  much  as  they  had 
been  applauded,  as  much  have  they  been  con- 
demned. 

In  some  districts  the  Turkish  bath  has  been 
used  for  horses,  and  found  to  answer  very  well 
when  not  pushed  too  far. 

In  strict  language  it  should  be  called  the 
Roman  bath,  the  principles  of  that  in  common 
use  having  been  carried  out  in  Rome  in  the  first 
instance. 

When  hunters  return  after  a  severe  day,  tired, 
dirty,  and  hungry,  the  great  secret  of  restoration 
is  to  get  them  clean  and  comfortable  in  the  least 
time  possible.  The  bath  and  washing  with  warm 
water  enable  grooms  to  accomplish  this  very 
readily  when  all  hands  are  at  the  post.  It  is 
when  the  assistance  is  small  that  time  is  lost, 
the  animal  starves,  and  probably  at  once  takes 
severe  cold. 

Whenever  the  bath  or  washing  is  had  recourse 
to,  plenty  of  warm  water  and  sufficient  men  should 
always  be  at  hand.  While  water  is  being  thrown 
on.  the  dirt  should  be  well  worked  out  of  the 


r™ 

Washing  Horses  after  Hunting.       191 

SKirx  and  hair.  A  good  scraping  follows  imme- 
diately, and  all  Lands  "  fall  to"  in  order  to  dry 
the  animal  at  once. 

Experience  in  these  matters  points  out  that  a 
modification  of  the  Roman  bath  and  washing 
house  would  be  highly  useful.  It  is  not  ab- 
solutely necessary  that  a  horse  should  be  again 
placed  in  a  state  of  perspiration  after  the  day's 
hunt.  The  washing  may  be  used,  but  with  the 
addition  that  the  house  in  which  the  operation 
is  Conducted  should  be  raised  to  a  temperature 
of  100°  or  thereabouts,  in  order  to  assist  in 
drying  the  animal's  coat,  which  accomplished, 
part  of  the  clothes  are  put  on,  and  the  horse  is  re- 
moved to  his  stall,  when  the  remainder  are  placed. 
By  these  means,  the  operation  is  more  quickly 
effected,  there  is  less  wear  of  the  system  than 
by  the  sweating  of  the  bath,  and  animals  are 
not  so  liable  to  take  cold  as  the  coat  is  rapidly 
dried. 

The  danger  which  is  believed  to  occur  when 
horses  are  washed  after  hunting  and  other  hard 
work  is  not  so  great  as  some  suppose.  When 
all  necessary  precautions  are  taken,  it  may  be 
almost  said  to  be  absent.  All  that  which 
is  to  be  feared  results  from  after-treatment. 
Grooms  sometimes  ignorantly  pursue  a  system 
with  a  small  stud,  few  appliances,  and  deficient 
help,  as  if  all  these  were  absolutely  present,  and 
from  such  a  want  of  forethought  the  greatest 
inconvenience  arises. 


192  The  Turkish  Balk,  and 


Not  long  ago  a  professional  friend  related  a 
circumstance  which  nearly  cost  him  the  spore 
of  the  season.  He  had  engaged  a  groom  in 
whom  it  was  said  was  concentrated  every 
essential  of  good  management,  having  had  good 
places  and  seen  much  experience  among  different 
kinds  of  horses.  The  groom  was  a  staunch  ad- 
vocate for  the  washing  of  horses,  and  constantly 
advocated  the  principle  under  all  circumstances. 
One  evening  after  a  hard  day  our  friend  re- 
turned, he  and  his  horse  well  bespattered  with 
dirt,  but  by  gentle  riding  homewards  the  animal 
was  quite  dry  on  arrival.  Notwithstanding  this 
the  groom,  single  handed,  stripped  the  horse, 
obtained  warm  water,  and  was  on  the  point  of 
making  a  commencement,  when  the  proprietor 
luckily  entered  and  put  a  stop  to  the  proceedings. 
Had  he  been  allowed  to  go  on,  the  chances  are 
that  with  no  other  assistance  the  horse  would 
have  remained  a  long  time  wet,  and  consequently 
suffered  from  cold  to  such  an  extent  as  to  lay  him 
off  work  altogether. 

In  such  cases  as  the  one  referred  to,  much  more 
reliance  is  to  be  placed  upon  the  use  of  a  straw 
wisp  or  dandy  brush,  followed  by  the  tools 
already  named  at  page  143.  There  will  certainly 
be  no  danger  to  be  apprehended  as  by  the  adop- 
tion of  a  protracted  washing. 

It  is  impossible  to  lay  down  a  code  of  rules 
which  are  to  the  letter  suitable  for  all  stables. 
What  we  have  gone  over  already  will  be  found 


Washing  Horses  after  Hunting.       193 


principally  applicable  as  general  regulations 
whereby  the  preservation  of  the  health  and  use- 
fulness of  horses  may  be  effected,  which  is  the 
end  and  object  of  all  the  attention  paid  them. 
The  principles  that  are  carried  out  in  one  estab- 
lishment must  not  be  taken  for  granted  as 
applicable  to  all  others.  This  is  a  too  common 
error ;  and  from  which  mischief  may  unex- 
pectedly occur  some  time  or  other.  With  slight 
modifications,  certain  regulations  of  an  establish- 
ment may  be  adopted  in  others  with  success,  all 
these  depending  entirely  upon  the  nature  of 
duties  and  the  influences  whicii  are  extended  to 
them.  Without  taking  these  into  proper  con- 
sideration inevitable  confusion  will  be  the  conse- 
quence* 


o 


194 


GENERAL  ARRANGEMENT  OF  STABLES. 

VERY  little  variation  exists  in  the  plan  of  arrange- 
ment in  stables.  Out  of  many  hundreds  of  such 
buildings,  as  well  as  cowhouses,  that  I  have  visited, 
not  more  than  a  few  attempts  are  made  to 
depart  from  the  one  common  principle  of  tying 
up  to  the  wall,  or  manger  which  projects  from  it. 
The  prevalence  of  the  system  surely  indicates  a 
very  slow  march  in  the  way  of  improvement,  and 
points  out  how  few  must  be  the  resources  where 
it  is  adopted  without  change. 

The  tying  up  of  animals  in  numbers  beneath 
one  roof,  separated  by  boarded  partitions  running 
at  right  angles  to  the  wall,  is  a  very  defective 
system,  and  obstructive  to  the  circulation  of  air 
in  a  proper  manner,  to  say  nothing  of  the  great 
hardship  which  is  inflicted  upon  the  animal  in 
being  compelled  to  look  at  a  blank  wall  conti- 
nually when  in  the  house. 

In  addition  we  usually  find  holes  are  either 
made  or  recommended  to  be  placed  over  his  head. 
Unfortunately,  by  making  merely  a  hole  we  do  not 
compel  the  foul  air  to  go  out  there  as  we  might 
be  led  to  believe.  Sometimes  it  may  do  so,  when 
it  cannot  fail  to  rise  upwards  from  the  floor  and 
carry  with  it  the  hurtful  emanations  of  dung  and 
urine.  These  pass  beneath  the  very  nose  of  the 
horse  or  cow,  and  are  breathed  to  their  detri- 


General  Arrangement  of  Stables.      195 


nicnt.  On  the  other  hand,  we  may  expect  cold 
air  to  find  its  way  through,  and  falling  upon  the 
head,  produce  a  chilly  stratum  which  gives  rise  to 
sore  throats  and  other  affections.  The  writer  is 
aware  of  such  a  stable  producing  great  damage 
at  times.  One  gentleman  returned  three  horses 
in  succession  to  a  dealer  for  ophthalmia,  which 
always  appeared  in  a  day  or  two  after  each  new 
animal  entered  the  building.  Proper  arrangement 
of  the  stalls  and  efficient  ventilation  prevented  the 
malady  again  appearing.  Another  stable,  where 
thirty  farm  horses  were  kept,  was  always  productive 
of  tedious  complaints.  The  cause  was  pointed 
out  but  disregarded,  and  the  result  was  total 
blindness  of  every  animal. 

A  third  stable,  which  is  owned  by  a  gentleman 
who  revels  in  a  propensity  for  horse  dealing  in 
addition  to  other  professions,  during  the  short 
space  of  two  years  produced  more  sore  throats, 
chronic  coughs,  and  absolute  whistlers,  than 
many  meet  with  in  the  course  of  a  lifetime. 

Imperfect  arrangement  induces  all  kinds  of 
unsystematic  and  unscientific  principles  of  clean- 
liaess  and  ventilation.  When  cold  air  reverses 
the  order  of  currents,  straw  is  at  once  stuffed  into 
the  channel  and  another  extreme  brought  about. 
Thus  one  evil  stalks  in  the  train  of  another,  and 
we  fail  to  recognise  them  frequently  until  too 
late.  But  not  uncommonly  the  results  of  such 
imperfection  tell  upon  the  pockets  of  strangers, 
and  a  greater  hardship  is  perpetrated. 


196      General  Arrangement  of  Stables. 


In  order  to  overcome  the  many  disadvantages 
which  occur  from  the  present  system  of  tying  up 
horses  and  cattle  to  the  wall,  a  plan  has  been 
adopted,  in  several  instances  with  success,  by 
which  neatness  of  arrangement  and  appearance 
are  in  perfect  keeping  with  other  points.  The 
stalls  are  placed  in  one  or  two  rows,  as  in  the  old 
system,  according  to  the  size  of  the  building, 
which  should  be  wider  than  they  are  usually 
made. 

Each  animal  has  allotted  to  him  a  space 
equivalent  to  1500  cubic  feet,  in  which  he  can 
breathe  freely.  This  would  require  a  stall  6  feet 
wide,  9  feet  long,  with  height  above  to  the  extent 
of  14  feet,  3  feet  in  front  of  manger,  and  6"  feet 
behind  the  stalls.  The  mangers  are  accordingly 
brought  3  feet  clear  from  the  wall  and  placed 
between  the  stall  partitions.  This  plan  thus 
leaves  a  foot-path  between  the  wall  and  manger, 
which  is  used  for  the  purpose  of  feeding  the 
animals. 

Behind  each  stall  the  space  allowed  answers  for 
passage  in  and  out  and  proper  cleaning  opera- 
tions, while  animals  enjoy  a  purer  atmosphere,  and 
the  whole  admits  of  a  better  principle  of  lighting 
raid  ventilation  to  be  carried  on. 

The  paving  of  stable  floors  should  be  of  the 
very  best  kind.  When  holes  or  other  irregu- 
larities are  present,  dung  and  urine  accumulate 
in  fermenting  masses  and  interfere  with  the 
health  of  the  inmates.  One  of  the  best  materials 


General  Arrangement  of  Stables.      197 


is  stone  laid  in  large  squares,  or  other  forms,  ac- 
curately jointed.  Dutch  tiles  are  very  service- 
able and  cleanly.  There  are  also  square  thick 
tiles  used  in  some  districts.  These  are  made 
from  fire-clay  and  burned.  When  laid  down  they 
present  a  very  good  and  even  surface.  Asphalt, 
or  coal  tar,  and  common  brick  floors  are  used  in 
some  stables,  but  soon  wear  into  holes.  In  cart- 
horse stables  this  is  a  great  objection,  their  shoes 
doing  great  damage. 

Cement  floors  are  probably  the  best  when 
properly  laid  down.  The  materials  are  composed 
of  what  is  termed  by  builders  "  hydraulic  lime/; 
The  compound  has  the  property  of  immediately 
hardening  when  placed  in  contact  with  water, 
becoming  quite  solid  and  resisting  external  agen- 
cies in  a  most  remarkable  manner. 

Stable  drains  are  a  great  nuisance  in  many 
instances.  They  are  either  too  deep  and  narrow, 
or  are  fitted  with  some  peculiar  arrangement  or 
apparatus  which  is  principally  designed  to  exhibit 
the  resources  of  a  cast-iron  foundry.  The  less 
these  things  are  fettered  by  details  the  better. 
Complications  are  not  always  understood  by 
grooms,  and  in  consequence  such  an  arrangement 
is  likely  to  get  out  of  order  by  neglect  and  even 
tampering.  We  were  at  one  time  great  advocates 
for  all  drains  in  a  stable  being  covered,  their 
entrance  only  being  seen,  and  that  guarded  by  a 
trap.  Further  experience,  however,  has  con- 
vinced us  that  plan  is  not  the  most  correct 


198      General  Arrangement  of  Stables. 


either  in  scientific  theory  or  practice.  Drain 
traps  are  likely  to  prove  a  greater  nuisance 
than  that  which  they  were  intended  originally  to 
set  aside.  On  account  of  the  drain  becoming 
plugged  up  below  by  breaking,  damage,  or 
stoppage  of  solid  matters,  all  the  gases  which 
result  midway  find  their  outlet  back  through  the 
trap. 

To  remedy  this,  we  now  recommend  all  stench 
traps  to  be  placed  outside  the  building.  The 
drains  inside  are  to  be  made  very  wide  and  shallow, 
having  a  moderate  fall  to  carry  off  the  water. 
By  this  arrangement  there  is  less  danger  from 
horses  slipping,  and  no  possibility  of  getting  feet 
or  shoes  fast  in  them. 

The  declivity  of  the  stable  floor  is  frequently 
very  injurious  to  horses'  legs.       For  the   purpose 
of  carrying  off  the  urine,  or  water  during  wash- 
ing, the  stall  floor  falls  considerably  from  head  to 
heel,  as  much  as  one  inch  to  the  foot  being  no 
uncommon   estimate.     This   causes  the  animals 
to  suffer  great  pain  in  the  back  tendons,  and  lays 
the    foundation    of    lameness    in    that    region. 
They   are   also  found  to   stand   back  from   the 
stall  as  far  as  the  chain    or   halter   will    allow, 
and    mischievous  grooms    strike   with   the  first 
weapon  they  lay  hold  of,  and  are  apt  to  cause 
injuries  to  the  shoulder   by  the  force  with  which 
the  horse  strikes  the  munger  in   rushing  forward 
to  avoid  the  blow.      Sometimes  he  stands  across 
the  stall,  and  thus  also  irritates  his  attendants  by 


Gen  eral  Arrangcm  en t  of  Sta  Ues .      199 


ruffling  the  bedding.  The  remedy  is  a  level 
floor.  But  all  to  whom  we  make  the  assertion 
at  once  rejoin,  "  How  are  you  to  drain  a  level 
stall  ?  Look  at  the  cost  of  straw  when  the  water 
cannot  get  off;  and  besides,  you  can  never  keep 
your  horse  dry."  The  matter  has  been  arranged 
by  the  author,  in  many  instances  with  success,  as 
follows : — 

The  first  object  is  to  lay  down  a  stout  perma- 
nent flooring  of  thick  paving  stones  well  jointed, 
or  other  hard  material,  perfectly  level,  and  behind 
the  stall  an  open  drain  ten  inches  wide,  and 
about  two  inches  deep  in  the  centre.  This  is 
either  made  of  strong;  baked  fire-clay,  or  cut  out 
of  thick  stones.  To  drain  the  stalls  there  are 
cut  by  means  of  a  chisel,  three  or  four  grooves 
running  down  the  stall  to  the  cross  drain  behind. 
Each  groove  commences  at  a  part  a  little  in 
front  of  the  middle,  very  shallow  at  first,  but  as 
the  drain  is  approached  they  become  a  little 
wider  and  deeper  until  the  outlet  is  upon  a  level 
with  the  bottom  of  the  drain.  After  this  arrange- 
ment has  been  carried  out  the  horses  are  not 
found  to  stand  away  back,  or  seldom  across  the 
stall,  while  perfect  drainage  is  effected. 

Wooden  floors  are  used  very  extensively  in 
coal  mines  to  save  bedding,  and  there  can  be 
no  reason  why  the  arrangement  may  not  be 
introduced  to  the  stables  of  large  owners  of  cart 
and  other  horses  above  ground,  where  scarcity  of 
bedding  occurs. 


2 00      General  Arrangement  of  Stables. 


As  usually  put  down,  however,  they  are  a  great 
nuisance,  as  they  confine  beneath  them  great 
quantities  of  dung  and  urine,  and  render  the 
stench  sometimes  unbearable.  To  overcome  this, 
and  render  the  wooden  floors  both  efficient  and 
economical,  the  author  had  several  stables  fitted 
according  to  plans  furnished,  and  which  were 
found  to  answer  admirably. 

The  first  part  of  the  plan  consisted  in  pulling 
up  the  old  floor  between  the  roof  supports,  and 
laying  bare  the  rock  beneath.  By  means  of  a 
pick  the  surface  was  cut  away  behind,  in  order 
to  cause  water  to  run  backwards,  a  fall  of  five  or 
six  inches  being  given  to  it. 

Next  three  joists  were  laid  longitudinally  from 
manger  to  heel  posts — one  upon  each  side,  and 
a  third  in  the  middle.  The  end  at  the  manger 
is  previously  thinned  down  in  order  to  cause  each 
joist  to  lie  upon  the  slanting  rock  in  such  a 
manner  that  their  upper  surfaces  are  perfectly 
flat  and  level.  Upon  the  top  of  these,  cross- 
wise, are  nailed  strong  planks  one  and  a  half 
inch  thick.  At  the  part  near  the  manger  they 
are  close  together,  but  from  the  middle  to  the 
bottom  of  the  stall  they  are  kept  three-eighths  of 
an  inch  apart,  to  admit  of  the  urine  passing 
below. 

Another  feature  consisted  in  making  the 
whole  of  this  to  fit  the  stall  and  admit  of  being 
raised  at  the  heel,  so  as  to  enable  the  groom  to 
sweep  all  the  accumulations  from  beneath.  The 


General  Arrangement  of  Stables.      201 


floor  behind  the  stalls  consisted  also  of  a  similar 
arrangement,  and  when  each  part  was  in  its  place, 
110  drains  were  to  be  seen.  Water  thrown  down 
found  its  way  readily  and  carried  the  filth  effec- 
tually,, by  which  the  stables  were  rendered  sweet 
and  wholesome,  while  little  trouble  was  required 
to  keep  them  so.  If  the  spaces  between  the 
planks  become  blocked  up,  a  piece  of  hoop  iron, 
or  an  old  knife,  is  used  to  clear  them. 

Loose  boxes  are  invaluable  where  horses  arc 
kept.  No  stable  where  there  are  more  than  one 
horse  should  be  without  them.  They  are  far 
preferable  to  stalls  under  most  circumstances, 
but  are  not  always  admissible,  on  account  of 
deficiency  of  room. 

A  loose  box  is  a  great  advantage  to  a  sick 
horse.  For  that  purpose  it  should  be  situate  at 
a  distance  from  the  usual  stable,  as  a  guard 
against  infectious  or  contagious  diseases.  It 
should  be  well  lighted  and  ventilated  by  the  wall 
below  or  door,  and  above  by  the  roof,  as  already 
described  at  page  140.  The  dimensions  should  be 
not  less  than  twelve  feet  square,  with  twelve  feet 
space  in  a  perpendicular  direction  also.  The 
floor  composed  of  hard  impervious  material, 
slightly  falling  to  the  centre,  so  as  to  cause 
urine,  &c.,  to  flow  off  by  means  of  a  .very  shallow 
and  wide  open  drain  to  the  outside. 

The  doors  should  slide  along  the  wall  on  the 
outside  if  possible ;  an  arrangement  which  is 
more  approved  than  their  being  hung  upon 


202      General  Arrangement  of  Stables. 


hinges.  When  doors  are  hung  upon  the  outside, 
horses  have  been  known  to  draw  the  door 
towards  the  wall  by  their  head,  and  thus  nearly 
hang  themselves.  To  allow  of  fresh  air,  a  rail 
or  bar  door  is  useful.  It  should  fit  the  doorway 
from  top  to  bottom.  Half  doors  are  objec- 
tionable. 


203 


THE  CAUSES  OF  DISEASE,  AND  ITS 
PREVENTION. 

THIS  is  a  subject  upon  which  volumes  might  be 
written.  At  present  the  information  has  little 
weight  in  many  quarters,  either  from  a  lingering 
prejudice  in  favour  of  old  customs,  or  incapability 
of  accepting  the  full  nature  of  the  truths  con- 
tained in  the  premises. 

In  a  majority  of  instances  disease  arises  from 
mismanagement  and  a  want  of  the  proper 
principles  which  insure  health.  Imperfect  stable 
management  is  a  prolific  source.  Much  of  this 
has  already  been  detailed.  If  we  need  incontro- 
vertible proof,  we  have  but  to  turn  to  the  racing, 
hunting,  and  other  stables,  where  all  is  order  and 
perfection.  There  disease  seldom  appears.  If 
it  does,  in  ninety-nine  cases  out  of  a  hundred  it  is 
of  the  most  intractable  character,  and  traced  to 
be  dependent  upon  causes  beyond  control. 

Among  many  of  our  farm  and  town  studs^ 
feeding  upon  inferior  provender,  and  the  use  of 
so  called  "  alterative"  medicine,  works  great  mis- 
chief. The  common  principle  is  to  allow  mis- 
management to  proceed  for  some  time,  and 
constantly  drug,  the  animals  with  medicines  of 
which  the  groom  can  know  but  very  little.  The 


204  T/te  Causes  of  Disease, 

use  of  nitre  (saltpetre)  is  frequently  attended 
with  baneful  results.  The  lowering  and  cooling 
properties  of  this  salt  are  such  that  when  it  is 
supposed  that  one  disease  is  driven  out,  the  animal 
is  not  unlikely  to  be  affected  with  sore  throats, 
coughs,  and  colds. 

When  horses  are  treated  properly,  then  exists 
a  state  which  we  call  health.  That  word  means 
more  than  is  usually  ascribed  to  it,  and  signifies 
that  condition  which  admits  of  no  improvement. 
Of  what  use  then  are  the  medicines  so  commonly 
and  constantly  used  to  nauseate  and  interfere 
with  the  animal  functions  ?  Such  things  cannot 
be  administered  without  producing  a  disturbance 
in  the  system.  That  disturbance  is  not  unlike 
disease,  and  is  used  by  the  medical  man  to  over- 
come, as  it  were,  any  unhealthy  condition  \vhich 
he  may  be  called  upon  to  eradicate. 

Into  no  greater  mistake  can  owners  and  stable- 
men fall  than  to  suppose  it  is  consistent  with 
reason  to  drug  an  animal  in  health,  or  that  medi- 
cines given  regularly  prevent  disease.  The 
reverse  is  frequently  the  result.  But  tell  sr.ch 
people  that  disease  is  always,  or  nearly  always, 
the  result  of  mismanagement,  neglect,  or  want  of 
forethought  and  knowledge,  they  would  laugh  in 
derision.  "We  do  know  how  to  manage/"  say 
they  ;  "  give  us  information  how  to  cure"  Such 
was  the  statement  of  an  individual  a  short  time 
ago.  He  had  boasted  how  he  managed,  of  his 
profits,  and  how  he  kept  his  animals  in  health, 


and  its  Prevention.  205 


but  nevertheless  lost  greater  part  of  his  stock  by 
ms-management 

It  is  far  better  to  prevent  than  to  cure. — The 
laws  of  the  former  are  better  understood  than  the 
laws  of  the  latter,  and  should  comprise  greatly  the 
foundation  of  every  man's  ordinary  education.  But 
how  expensively  and  roundabout  do  many  choose 
to  go  to  work.  Actually  allow  disease,  the 
thief,  to  enter  a  stock — the  stable,  and  even 
favour  its  entrance  by  taking  off  the  bolts  and 
bars,  i.e.,  lowering  and  devitalizing  the  constitution 
by  medicines  when  the  animal  is  in  health. 
After  the  steed  is  stolen,  lamentation  occurs, 
and  a  lock — the  veterinary  surgeon — is  sent  for, 
and  expected  to  restore  that  which  is  lost. 

And  what  interest,  we  may  ask,  can  there  be 
in  a  professional  man  urging  attendance  to  the 
correct  principles  of  routine  and  effective  ma- 
nagement ?  Can  he  be  convicted  of  selfishness  ? 
Does  he  sell  his  physic  by  the  advice  ?  Neither, 
but  in  execution  of  the  trust  committed  to  his 
charge,  labouring  under  the  full  conviction  that, 
after  his  years  of  study,  nature  is  not  to  be 
trifled  with,  even  though  it  be  against  his  pecu- 
niary interest,  he  knows  it  is  his  duty  to  expose 
the  fallacy  and  insecurity  of  the  support  on  which 
rests  the  idea  that  health  can  be  maintained 
under  such  imperfect  regulations  and  treatment. 
It  amounts  to  a  species  of  cruelty  to  animals,  and 
owners  and  stablemen  would  profit  much  more  by 
the  study  of  duty  and  management,  than  that  of 


206  The  Causes  of  Disease, 


the  actions  and  uses  of  medicines  which  is  an 
affair  of  a  lifetime.  Let  them  become  perfect 
in  stable  management,  it  will  gain  them  far  more 
lasting  emolument  than  they  can  hope  for  in  a 
scientific  path  which  their  feet  are  not  designed 
by  nature  to  tread. 

An  instance  of  the  absurdity  of  these  daily 
mistakes  may  not  be  out  of  place.  A  groom 
recently  consulted  the  author  and  desired  to  have 
medicine,  naming  the  constituents,  and  stated  he 
had  been  .with  a  medical  man  and  knew  all  the 
properties  of  drugs. 

It  transpired  the  animal  for  which  the  medi- 
cines were  required  had  been  dosed  for  months, 
under  the  supposition  that  she  was  suffering  from 
worms.  "  But/'  said  he,  "  it's  all  to  no  purpose,  she 
gets  no  better,  and  I  thought  I  would  give  you  a 
trial."  Searching  inquiries  were  instituted,  and 
DO  doubt  being  raised  as  to  the  proper  nature  of 
the  ailment,  and  its  entire  dependence  upon  causes 
hidden  from  the  applicant,  he  was  sent  home  with 
instructions  "  to  give  good  food  at  regular  inter- 
vals, exercise  daily  for  two  hours  when  not  at 
work,  and  either  put  a  muzzle  upon  the  animal 
after  feeding,  or  allow  her  only  tan  or  sawdust 
for  bedding." 

The  advice  was,  however,  thrown  away.  As  he 
could  not  obtain  medicine  which  was  known  to 
be  not  required,  and  even  dangerous,  another 
was  applied  to  ;  the  man  physicked,  and  the  mare 
died  suddenly,  her  carcass  blocking  the  entrance 


r~ 
i 

and  its  Prevention.  207 


to    the    stable    when    the    morning    visit    was 
made. 

This  animal  was  a  ravenous  or  greedy  feeder, 
a  condition  which  exists  as  a  result  of  some 
morbid  state  of  the  digestive  organs,  brought 
about  originally  by  neglect  and  mismanagement. 
Such  subjects  often  look  rough  and  out  of  con- 
dition, and  medicine  aggravates  the  case  if  pre- 
scribed wantonly.  The  extent  to  which  a  groora 
should  go  is  to  carry  out  the  advice  already 
given,  and  if  medicines  are  needed  let  them  be 
prescribed  by  one  who  has  studied  them  in  a 
way  he  cannot. 


208 


SIMPLE  RULES  FOR  SHOEING,  AND 
MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  FEET  OF 
HORSES. 

LA  FOSSE,  a  celebrated  French  veterinarian,  said, 
"  Pas  dtpied,  pas  de  cheval"  which  British  writers 
interpret,  "  No  foot,  no  horse/'  and  thereby 
indicate  the  amount  of  importance  which  is  at- 
tached to  the  member,  as  forming  an  integral 
part  of  the  animal  body.  Many  have  enlarged 
upon  the  theme  in  various  ways,  with  not  unsuc- 
cessful eloquence ;  others  have  sown  broadcast  a 
mass  of  error,  their  observations  being  superficial 
through  their  want  of  preliminary  training. 

To  preserve  the  foot  is  to  maintain  the  capa- 
bilities of  the  animal  in  a  remarkable  manner. 
Its  anatomical  structure  is  of  the  most  wronderful 
character,  and  suggests  the  advisability  of  greater 
respect  than  is  usually  paid  to  that  important 
part. 

The  hoof  is  a  fibrous  box  or  case,  in  which  is 
accurately  fitted  the  softer  and  sensitive  parts. 
Its  growth  is  secured  from  above  at  the  coronet 
downwards,  where  a  special  arrangement  exists 
for  its  formation.  The  sole  and  frog  are  also 
developed  and  formed  by  structures  of  counter- 
part shape  on  the  inner  side. 

The  hoof  is  capable  of  a  limited   amount   of 


Simple  Rules  for  Shoeing.  209 


elasticity,  and  it  resists  shocks  in  a  remarkable 
manner.  It  conducts  heat  badly,  and  on  these 
accounts  proves  highly  serviceable  for  protection, 
while  its  constant  growth,  thickness,  and  insen- 
sibility, admirably  adapts  it  as  a  substance  to 
which  an  unyielding  defence,  the  shoe,  can  be 
applied.  In  shoeing  horses'  feet  it  is  a  mistake 
to  cut,  burn,  and  rasp  them  so  much  as  is  usually 
done.  It  must  be  remembered  that  scraping  or 
biting  our  finger  nails  renders  them  sore  and 
useless  as  a  defence  or  means  of  prehension. 
How  much  more  then  do  we  render  the  hoof  of 
a  horse  by  these  reducing  measures,  unable  to 
act  as  a  means  of  defence  and  resistance,  to  bear 
the  weight,  and  hold  the  nails  by  which  the 
shoe  is  attached  ?  The  better  the  foot,  the  better 
must  be  the  protection.  The  animal  will  perform 
his  work  more  readily  and  with  greater  safety, 
and  last  the  longer.  Many  forget  the  horse 
has  to  carry  weight  beside  that  of  his  own  body, 
or  compelled  to  draw  loads  and  sutler  concussion 
011  the  stones  at  a  high  speed.  Then  why  cut 
away  from  the  foot  that  which  the  animal  re- 
quires so  much  ?  Some  say  it  is  to  prevent  the 
foot  growing  out  of  shape,  but  that  is  a  mistake. 
There  is  more  mischief  occurring  (and  nothing 
causes  a  faulty  shape  as  soon)  from  the  practice 
of  reducing  the  hoof,  that  from  any  other  plan 
adopted. 

Each  part  of  the  hoof  is  possessed  of  different 
properties.     The   outer  part,  the   wall  or  crust, 

P 


210        Simple  Hides  for  Shoeing  >  and 


grows  downwards,  and  the  ends  of  the  fibres  of 
which  it  is  composed  are  presented  to  the  ground. 
On  this  account  it  is  more  resisting  to  the  wear- 
ing forces,  and  does  not  fall  off  in  flakes  or 
scales.  The  ends  of  these  fibres,  or,  in  other 
words,  the  ground  surface  of  the  wall  or  crust 
only,  should  be  absolutely  cut  away,  and  that 
principally  towards  the  toe,  where  the  greatest 
growth  usually  takes  place  in  health. 

The  sole  and  frog  are  capable  of  what  is  termed 
exfoliating,  or, in  other  words,  detaching  their  waste 
parts  in  flakes  or  scales.  None  but  loose  por- 
tions should  be  cut  away.  These  parts  are  quite 
capable  of  their  own  reduction,  and  need  no  in- 
terference. When  shoes  are  being  fitted,  do  not 
apply  them  too  hot,  particularly  to  thin  shelly 
feet.  If  the  feet  are  good,  and  no  cutting  is 
carried  on,  as  just  directed,  a  hot  shoe  will  do  little 
harm. 

Use  well-drawn  nails.  Thick-necked  nails 
"  bind"  in  the  holes  of  the  shoe,  and  frequently 
press  upon  the  sensitive  structures  of  the  foot, 
causing  severe  lameness.  Besides,  they  act  as 
perfect  wedges  to  the  hoof,  splitting  off  portions 
to  its  detriment. 

Let  the  nails  be  pointed  with  a  long  lead,  and 
nail  holes  in  shoes  be  coarse,  i.e.,  not  too  near 
the  outer  web  or  edge.  In  this  there  is  less 
danger  of  laming  horses  than  by  the  fine  seam 
and  snub  pointed  nail.  The  former  nail  is  driven 
straight  down,  always  having  a  tendency  to  go 


Management  of  the  Feet  of  Horses.    211 


away  from  the  sensitive  structures,  but  the  lat- 
ter has  to  be  driven  inwards,  by  which  it  is  al- 
most certain  to  lame  by  a  "  prick"  or  "  bind"  as 
it  approaches  too  near. 

Shoes  should  always  be  made  to  possess  a  per- 
fectly level  surface  for  the  foot  to  rest  upon. 
That  part  of  the  foot  which  comes  upon  the  shoe 
is  to  be  the  ground  surface  of  the  wall.  No  part 
of  the  frog  or  sole  need  touch  the  shoe. 

The  shape  of  shoes  is  an  affair  of  little  moment. 
There  is  no  call  for  beauty  or  grand  work.  The 
secret  of  shoeing  is  to  afford  a  protection  which 
the  hoof  alone  cannot  give,  and  that  is  the  point 
to  study. 

Bar  shoes  consist  of  the  ordinary  shoe,  the 
heels  being  turned  round  to  meet,  and  afterwards 
welded ;  or  a  bar  is  placed  across  in  front  of  the 
heels.  Their  use  is  adopted  in  order  to  throw  a 
portion  of  the  bearing  upon  the  frog,  to  relieve 
other  parts  which  may  be  injured  or  diseased. 
If  the  frog  is  too  small  to  reach  the  bar,  punch  a 
hole  in  it,  and  rivet  a  piece  of  leather  on,  to 
press  upon  the  frog,  and  thus  gain  the  desired 
bearing.  Bar  shoes  are  very  useful  for  curing 
running  thrushes,  if  the  weight  can  be  borne. 

Leather  soles  are  useful  agents  to  protect  feet 
which  have  been  cut  away  in  operations,  and 
prevent  the  access  of  dirt.  As  a  means  of  pre- 
venting concussion  the  writer  has  reason  to 
doubt  their  efficacy.  Shoeing  as  at  present 
carried  on  is  to  be  likened  to  breaking  a  man's 


212        Simple  Rules  for  Shoeing,  and 


head,  and  the  leather  sole  to  the  plaster.  It  is 
a  too  common  practice  to  pare  the  feet  almost 
like  paper,  and  then  put  on  leather  soles.  If 
healthy  feet  are  treated  judiciously  they  possess 
a  natural  protection,  and  need  no  leather  soles. 

Stopping  for  feet  is  quite  unnecessary.  Grooms 
and  smiths  call  loudly  for  stopping  in  order  to 
pare  the  foot  easily,  and  forget  that  as  they 
pare  the  horn  dries  more  rapidly,  and  therefore 
is  the  harder.  Let  them  try  the  method  al- 
ready laid  down,  and  they  will  find  the  foot  is 
soft  beneath  the  scales  which  fall  off  as  soon  as 
the  shoe  is  removed,  showing  that  nature  uses 
her  own  stopping,  which  is  far  better  than  clay 
or  cow  dung.  The  same  remarks  apply  to  wet 
swabs  and  other  allied  treatment. 

Horses'  feet  should  always  be  kept  as  dry  as 
possible  when  healthy.  Their  natural  con- 
dition of  usefulness  as  a  protection  consists  in 
being  hard  and  bulky.  If  disease  overtakes 
them,  poultices  and  fomentations  are  then  needed, 
as  prescribed  by  the  veterinarian.  No  greater 
mischief  occurs  to  horses'  feet  than  that  which 
arises  from  the  effects  of  wet  straw  yards  and 
pastures.  The  salts  that  are  in  the  fluids  found  in 
those  places  reduce  and  dissolve  the  hoof,  and  ren- 
der it  unfit  as  a  protection.  Such  places  are  best 
avoided  unless  well  drained. 

Foot  ointments  when  properly  made  are  very 
useful.  Equal  parts  of  Stockholm  or  Archangel 
tar  and  mutton  suet  are  to  be  melted  together, 


Management  of  tlie  Feet  of  Horses.    213 


and  a  small  portion  brushed  round  the  hoof  each 
day.  This  will  be  found  the  best  and  cheapest 
preparation.  Grooms,  however,  are  often  very 
fond  of  some  high  sounding  and  unintelligible 
name  for  a  horse  preparation,  and  would  rather 
pay  five  shillings  for  mutton  suet  or  bacon  fat 
and  the  refuse  of  kitchens  coloured  with  cop- 
peras, if  it  has  only  a  long  name  such  as, 

"'CUITOMOUTONETTARGPODOSUNGUENTON," 

or  such  like  mummery,  than  be  content  to  use 
a  better  remedy  which  may  be  obtained  for  one- 
tenth  the  price. 

Foot  ointments  find  their  basis  in  the  Archan- 
gel tar  very  properly.  That  agent  prevents 
evaporation,  and  promotes  the  necessary  elas- 
ticity of  the  hoof.  Grease  and  fats  with  other 
admixtures  are  very  prone  to  render  the  hoof 
brittle.  As  for  curative  effects  being  pro- 
duced on  the  sensitive  part  by  dressing  the  hoof 
outside,  there  is  no  evidence  to  show  beyond 
what  quackery  swears  on  false  premises. 

Cutting,  brushing,  &c. — These  are  terms  by 
which  is  understood  that  damage  of  greater  or 
less  extent  is  inflicted,  generally  at  the  fetlock  of 
one  leg,  by  the  opposite  foot  during  action. 

In  the  former  case  the  skin  is  usually  cut  or 
very  much  bruised,  and  great  lameness  occurs, 
while  in  the  latter  the  hair  is  slightly  removed 
from  the  surface  by  attrition,  and  the  skin  suffers 
in  a  less  degree.  Horses,  however,  may  "  brush" 


214        Simple  Rules  for  Shoeing,  and 


for  some  time,  and  suddenly  become  desperate 
cutters  in  consequence  of  repeated  injury  being 
done  to  the  parts. 

Cutting  sometimes  takes  place  in  animals 
with  high  action,  when  the  toes  are  naturally 
turned  inwards,  and  the  foot  is  carried  towards  the 
opposite  leg.  In  this  case  the  seat  of  injury  is 
below  the  knee,  and  great  lameness  occurs,  some- 
times attended  with  permanent  swelling  of  the 
bone,  called  a  "  splint." 

The  causes  are  generally  traceable  to  pre- 
ventible  circumstances.  Animals  are  either  out 
of  condition — weak — or  they  are  driven  too  fast 
and  worked  too  hard  in  a  variety  of  ways.  The 
victims  are  usually  the  horses  of  butchers, 
bakers,  and  other  fast  drivers,  omnibus  and  cab 
horses  especially- — in  fact,  cart  and  other  horses 
will  be  guilty  of  the  practice  if  badly  kept  and 
harassed  about.  When  work  is  prolonged  too 
much  and  animals  are  heavily  shod,  they  become 
"  leg  tired"  in  stable  phraseology,  and  the  action 
becomes  slovenly  and  false. 

The  remedies  are  careful  feeding  and  work 
at  all  times,  but  especially  when  the  latter  is 
unavoidably  prolonged.  In  the  matter  of  shoe- 
ing much  may  be  done.  It  is  the  fancy  to 
place  upon  the  feet  the  most  fantastic,  and 
even  the  most  clumsy  shoes,  and  there  are  scores 
of  smiths  who  may  be  found  ready  to  accept  a 
wager  "  to  take  any  horse  off  the  cut."  There 
is  no  need  for  these,  or  even  to  mutilate  the  hoof, 


Management  of  the  Feet  of  Horses.     215 


as  is  too  commonly  done.  If  great  lameness  arises, 
let  the  injured  parts  receive  immediate  attention, 
and  keep  the  animal  at  rest.  Next,  place  on  the 
feet  very  light  shoes,  and  when  put  to  work  let 
common  humanity  prevail.  Horses  are  not 
machines  or  steam-engines,  that  they  can  go  in- 
cessantly ;  if  their  periods  of  labour  are  not  pro- 
perly regulated,  and  the  amount  be  too  exacting, 
the  animal  constitution  must  give  way.  To 
those  who  are  willing  to  recognise  early  signs 
of  degeneracy,  we  beg  to  name  cutting  and 
brushing;  if  they  are  not  attended  to,  further 
aggravation  is  succeeded  by  serious  complications, 
as  broken  knees,  fractures,  &c.,  to  the  animal, 
besides  others  of  an  extraneous  character. 

Groggy  feet,  or  those  understood  to  be  affected 
with  disease  of  the  coffin  joint,  require  special 
treatment,  in  order  to  limit  as  much  as  possible 
the  suffering  of  the  animal.  There  is  little  of 
service  to  be  done  in  a  medical  point  of  view 
except  by  dividing  the  nerves  going  to  the  part, 
thus  to  cut  off  sensory  communication.  After 
such  operations  great  care  is  required  in  driving 
the  nails,  for  if  the  sensitive  parts  are  wounded, 
no  evidence  of  pain  being  felt,  inflammation  and 
suppuration  follow,  and  in  some  cases  sloughing 
of  the  entire  hoof.  The  smith  should  always  be 
informed  when  he  has  such  feet  to  deal  with. 

Groggy  feet  do  not  require  shoes  of  great 
weight:  They  should  be  rounded  off  or  turned 
up  at  the  toe  to  diminish  leverage  in  the  first 


216        Simple  Rules  for  Shoeing,  and 


act  of  progression.  In  the  variety  of  horse 
most  subject  to  this  disease,  five  nails,  or  even 
fewer,  may  be  sufficient  to  hold  on  the  shoe,  as 
the  foot  is  always  very  firm,  and  the  animal  cannot 
endure  severe  exertion.  A  light  hammer  should 
be  used,  and  the  blows  sharp  and  in  rapid  succes- 
sion, to  avoid  shaking,  which  always  occurs  with 
heavy  tools  used  without  caution. 

The  feet  are  to  be  prepared  according  to  rules 
already  given  at  p  ige  210. 

Sidebones  among  cart-horses  are  very  com- 
mon. When  the  natural  elasticity  of  the  cartilages 
which  surmount  the  wings  of  the  coffin  bone  is 
lost,  the  parts  are  found  to  have  been  involved 
in  the  process  of  inflammation  and  subsequent 
conversion  Into  bone  (ossification.)  The  motion 
of  the  joint  is  more  or  less  interfered  with,  con- 
cussion causes  pain,  and  the  tendency  is  towards 
an  increase  of  size, 

If  the  feet  are  properly  preserved  and  pre- 
pared for  the  shoe,  all  that  is  required  is  to 
keep  the  heels  and  toes  low  and  stiff,  and  be- 
neath the  sidebone ;  the  heel  of  the  shoj  is  best 
made  to  pass  straight  backwards  from  ike  quarter, 
in  order  to  extend  the  surface  of  bearing.  The 
foot  should  be  hammered  as  lightly  as  possible. 

For  ring  bones  the  toes  and  heels  of  shoes 
should  also  be  kept  low,  in  order  to  avoid  con- 
cussion 

In  all  cases,  however,  where  these  affections 
are  of  long  standing,  and  medical  treatment  pro- 


Management  of  the  Feet  of  Horses.     217 

duces  little  or  no  good,  lameness  being  per- 
sistent, the  animal  will  be  of  scarcely  any 
service  for  town  work.  It  is  best  to  place  them 
upon  soft  land  in  the  farmer's  hands,  where  many 
kinds  of  light  work  may  be  performed  without 
any  sacrifice  of  feeling  or  increase  of  suffering 
to  the  animal. 

Under  certain  aggravated  conditions  of  the  three 
forms  of  disease  we  have  been  considering,  the 
advice  of  a  veterinary  surgeon  should  be  sought 
as  to  the  policy  of  such  animals  being  retained 
whose  life  can  only  be  one  of  protracted  misery. 

Pumiced  feet,  so  called,  are  of  frequent  occur- 
rence among  cart-horses,  but  others  also  are 
liable  when  mismanagement  occurs.  The 
appearances  which  give  rise  to  the  term  are 
convexity  of  the  sole  and  concavity  of  the  wall, 
with  great  tendency  to  elongation  towards  the 
toe.  They  are  the  outward  manifestations  of  an 
inward  diseased  state  of  the  sensitive  and  secret- 
ing structures — hence  the  deformed  shape  and 
growth. 

Shoeing  may  greatly  palliate  the  case,  but 
nothing  is  known  that  will  cure  it.  Put  on  a 
strong  shoe  having  a  great  amount  of  cover  to 
protect  the  sole.  Seat  or  hollow  out  the  upper 
surface,  that  no  part  but  the  wall  shall  receive 
weight.  Let  the  heels  and  toe  be  low  and  stiff; 
keep  the  toe  of  the  hoof  moderately  short ;  avoid 
paring  the  sole,  or  otherwise  reducing  the  foot ; 
use  well-drawn  nails,  put  well  up ;  keep  on  the 


218         Simple  Rules  for  Shoeing,  and 


shoe  always  as  long  as  it  is  secure  and  serviceable, 
so  as  to  avoid  breaking  the  foot  by  too  frequent 
removes.  Use  daily  dressings  of  hoof  ointment, 
inside  and  out,  after  the  foot  is  cleaned,  by  which 
means  many  animals  will  be  enabled  to  perform  a 
great  amount  of  work  with  ease  and  cheerfulness. 

Pricks  and  binds  are  the  natural  consequences 
of  the  system  of  shoeing  with  nails.  Some  per- 
sons ignorantly  suppose  they  can  only  occur  from 
carelessness.  They  must,  however,  be  informed 
that  workmen  of  the  best  class,  well  known  for 
their  superior  skill  and  care,  are  liable  to  cause 
lameness  by  a  prick  or  bind  with  the  nail  in 
shoeing.  There  are  many  causes  for  it,  most  of 
which  are  beyond  his  control.  Great  mischief 
ensues  frequently  after  such  an  occurrence,  and 
the  difficulty  commences  in  attaching  the  blame 
to  the  proper  person.  In  ninety-nine  cases  out 
of  a  hundred  such  ought  not  to  occur,  yet  it 
does,  and  how  ?  As  soon  as  a  horse  is  lame  he 
is  usually  walked  off  to  the  smith,  who  receives 
the  information  that  he  has  pricked  the  horse. 
Knowing  the  estimate  placed  by  owners  generally 
upon  such  a  case,  the  smith  naturally  endeavours 
to  prove  the  contrary,  and  in  many  cases  suc- 
ceeds by  ignorance  of  the  proper  symptoms  and 
mode  of  manipulation,  in  having  the  horse  sent 
home  with  the  qualifying  announcement,  that 
the  lameness  is  in  the  shoulder  or  other  place, 
" but  not  in  the  foot" 

At  this  stage,  simple   matters   would   set  the 


Management  of  the  Feet  of  Horses.     219 


animal  sound  in  a  few  hours,  but  alas  !  too  fre- 
quently delay  occurs,  or  some  quack  treatment  is 
pursued,  and  at  length  matter  issues  from  the 
coronet,  and  the  foot  is  diseased  and  disfigured 
for  life. 

In  all  cases  of  lameness,  the  shoe  should  be 
removed,  and  foot  properly  examined  by  percus- 
sion with  the  hammer,  and  pressure  by  the  pin- 
cers. The  situation  of  nail  holes  in  the  hoof 
will  determine  if  some  are  too  near,  and  evidences 
of  pain  will  usually  point  to  the  part  under  trial. 

If  the  lameness  is  not  great,  mere  removal  of 
the  shoe  and  nails  will  mostly  be  sufficient ;  or  a 
warm  poultice  of  bran  or  sawdust  may  be  applied 
for  twelve  hours.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  pain 
and  lameness  be  excessive,  having  gradually  in- 
creased in  severity,  matter  may  be  suspected  to 
be  present  within  the  hoof.  Exploration  with  the 
knife  should  follow  percussion  and  pressure,  by 
which  the  precise  spot  will  be  detected,  and  exit 
thus  given  to  the  imprisoned  pus  will  afford  al- 
most instant  relief.  Poultices  preceded  by  hot 
fomentations  will  be  required,  besides  other  treat- 
ment, to  allay  febrile  excitement  and  expedite  the 
case,  for  which  a  qualified  veterinarian  is  best  to 
dictate,  according  to  existing  circumstances. 

It  is  advisable  in  all  cases  of  lameness  to  apply 
at  once  to  a  veterinary  surgeon  ;  much  tedious- 
ness  and  disappointment  as  well  as  expense  may 
be  avoided.  As  in  many  other  cases,  "  the  first 
cost  is  the  least  in  the  end." 


220         Simple  'Rules  for  Shoeing,  and 


The  shoeing  of  lame  horses  requires  special 
measures,  and  could  not  be  treated  any  further 
in  a  work  of  this  kind  without  extending  it 
beyond  ordinary  limits.  The  instructions  already 
given  will  in  greater  part  be  found  applicable. 
By  their  observance  much  harm  may  be  avoided, 
and  the  usefulness  of  our  valuable  servants 
greatly  extended.  Brittle  feet,  so  called,  may  be 
wonderfully  restored  in  a  short  time,  the  fulling 
off  or  losing  of  shoes  greatly  avoided  ;  and  re- 
member that  the  greater  evil  exists  in  doing  too 
much,  rather  than  knowing  what  should  not  be 
done. 

Horse-shoeing  in  coal-mines  fully  exemplifies 
this  statement.  Here,  where  the  smiths  have 
many  horses  and  ponies  to  shoe  after  working 
hours  in  the  pit  have  ceased,  the  benefits  of  not 
doing  too  much  are  to  be  observed.  There  is 
seldom  to  be  seen  a  bad  foot.  Except  where  the 
roadways  are  saturated  or  overflowing  with  water 
having  mineral  salts  in  solution,  such  may  be 
said  scarcely  to  occur.  Animals  are  also  very 
seldom  lamed  in  shoeing.  When  they  run  upon 
dry  ground  the  feet  grow  thick  and  strong.  At 
each  shoeing  the  smith  merely  cuts  down  the  foot 
to  produce  a  level  surface,  "  lets  in  the  clip  "  to 
the  required  distance  at  the  toe  backwards,  nails 
on  the  shoe,  clenches  and  roughly  rasps  off  over- 
hanging portions.  By  these  means  the  shoes 
are  seldom  lost,  and  the  best  of  feet  are  found. 

It  is  a  pity  the  system  cannot  be  exhumed  in 


Management  of  the  Feet  of  Horses.     221 


greater  part  from  the  coal-mines,  and  transferred 
for  the  benefit  of  our  town  and  other  horses  in 
parts  where  proper  care  is  not  exercised.  Any- 
thing likely  to  prove  beneficial,  even  if  brought 
from  a  coal-mine,  would  be  acceptable,  and  the 
value  of  our  horses  demands  this  consideration. 


O  -") 


POULTICES  AND  FOMENTATIONS. 

THERE  is  frequently  great  need  of  these  agents 
as  auxiliaries  to  the  treatment  of  disease  which 
arises  among  horses.  In  contradistinction  to 
the  great  amount  of  good  which  they  may  be 
caused  to  effect,  much  harm  may  ensue  by  igno- 
rance or  misunderstanding. 

A  poultice  is  employed  for  two  purposes — to 
apply  heat  and  moisture  conjointly  to  a  part,  or 
cold  and  moisture.  We  have  therefore  warm 
and  cold  poultices.  Fomentations,  on  the  other 
hand,  are  always  hot.  They  consist  usually  of 
water  alone,  or  infusions  of  some  plant  whose 
active  principle  has  some  medicinal  effect. 

The  object  in  either  case  is  to  perpetuate  in  a 
part  by  external  means,  either  a  degree  of  heat 
or  cold  which  cannot  be  effected  otherwise,  in 
order  to  promote  some  desirable  curative  action. 
To  render  these  means  effective,  their  use  must 
be  long  continued,  and  the  desired  temperature 
maintained  as  near  as  possible.  A  poultice 
loosely  applied,  or  a  fomentation  imperfectly 
maintained,  produces  absolute  harm  by  the 
evaporation  and  cooling  which  ensues,  and  its 
effects  upon  the  internal  structures.  When 
parts  have  been  fomented  or  poulticed,  they 
should  either  be  dried  or  protected  by  covering 
from  the  atmosphere. 


r™ 

Poultices  and  Fomentations.          223 


In  the  treatment  of  wounds  or  abscesses,  neg- 
lect of  these  precautions  produces  serious 
obstructions  to  the  successful  recovery  of  a 
case,  and  the  medical  attendant  too  frequently 
incurs  undeserved  censure. 


224 


SENDING  FOR  THE  VETERINARY 
SURGEON. 

IN  the  hurry  and  excitement  consequent  upon 
sudden  accident  or  illness  among  animals,  mes- 
sengers are  frequently  despatched  with  imperfect 
reports,  and  therefrom  much  error  and  incon- 
venience results.  These  facts  may  be  sufficient 
excuse  for  appending  a  few  plain  rules  to  be 
observed  in  order  to  avoid  the  occurrence  of  un- 
toward events,  and  rather  expedite  matters  to- 
wards a  favourable  if  not  successful  issue. 

First. — As  far  as  possible  always  send  a  writ- 
ten message.  Never  trust  verbal  messages  to  boys 
or  illiterate  persons ;  and  let  the  name  and  ad- 
dress be  legibly  inscribed. 

Second. — Send  early,  that  the  practitioner  may 
see  the  case  before  it  is  aggravated  by  serious 
and  irrecoverable  complications.  "  A  stitch  in 
time  saves  nine/"  and  the  first  cost  may  avoid 
the  necessity  of  incurring  greater  ones. 

Thirdly.  —  Afford  as  much  information  as 
possible  as  to  what  has  been  observed  of  the 
symptoms  manifested  by  the  animal.  The  prac- 
titioner may  be  greatly  assisted  in  preparation 
of  remedies  to  take  with  him.  Never  send  such 
a  message  as  "  You  are  to  come  directly,  we  have 
a  horse  (or  cow)  badly."  This  is  a  very  useless 
and  perplexing  statement. 


Sending  for  the  Veterinary  Surgeon.   225 


Fourthly. — Avoid  absolute  doctoring  the  animal 
for  which  you  desire  a  professional  opinion. 
Attend  implicitly  to  the  instructions  received, 
and  success  will  be  more  certain. 

Fifthly. — Never  withhold  information  upon 
matters  which  are  calculated  to  throw  light  upon 
the  causes,  nature,  symptoms,  &c.,  of  the  ailment. 
Absence  of  such  paralyses  the  hands  of  skill, 
and  prevents  the  adoption  of  proper  measures. 

These  may  admit  of  some  variation  under 
certain  circumstances,  but  in  the  majority  of 
cases,  if  carried  out  properlj ,  they  will  effect  more 
good  than  is  to  be  expected  at  the  present  day 
in  many  places,  from  the  utter  disregard  of  sys- 
tem which  prevails,  particularly  in  agricultural 
districts. 


INDEX. 


ABILITY,  48. 

Absorption,  24. 

Acids  of  digestion,  29. 

Advantages  of  proper  food  and  system,  42,  4& 

,,  clipping  and  singeing,  ]  54. 

,>  loose  boxes,  201. 

„  sliding  doors,  201. 

Albumen,  30. 

Albuminous  principles  of  food,  28 — 30. 
Albuminuria,  45. 
Animal  heat,  32. 

,,  not  maintained  by  fat  alone,  35. 

,.,  produced  in  part  from  nitrogenous  compounds,  32. 

Animals  hybernating,  35. 
,,       tying  up  of,  194. 
Arrangement  of  stables,  194. 
Assimilation,  24. 

BAD  arrangements  of  stables,  ill  effects  of,  195. 

Bandages,  use  of,  149. 

Barley,  159. 

Bar-shoes,  211. 

Bean  and  pea-straw,  101. 

Beans,  158. 

,,     require  to  be  bruised,  175. 
Beaning  horses,  113. 
Bedding,  150. 
Bellans  or  roaring,  112. 
Bishoping,  114. 

Black-ashes  as  a  detergent,  135. 
Blaunders  or  glanders,  112. 
Body-brush,  143. 
Boussingault  and  Papin,  experiments  to  determine  whether  hoivot 

pass  grain  unchanged,  60. 
Bran  :  its  nature,  uses,  and  abuses,  83,  161. 

„     mashes,  162. 

„     as  a  laxative,  84. 
Breeding  or  pluck,  48. 

u2 


228  Index. 


Bribery  in  horse  dealing,  120. 
Broken  wind,  how  caused,  21. 

,,  how  disposed  of,  115. 

Bruised  coi-n,  economy  of,  99. 
Bruising  oats,  not  always  necessary,  157. 

,,       peas,  beans,  &c«,  necessity  for,  175. 
Brushes,  143. 
Brushing,  213. 
Bulk  or  volume,  39. 


C^CUM,  25. 

,,      contains  fluids  principally,  23. 
Calculi  or  stones  in  the  intestines,  51,  162. 

„  „      their  origin,  51,  52,  162. 

,,  ,,      usual  composition,  52. 

,,  ,,      presented  by  Mr.  Foreman,  M.E.C.V.S.,  54. 

Capacity  of  large  intestines,  26. 

,,  small    ditto,  24. 

Carbolic  acid  as  a  disinfectant,  135. 
Care  required  in  feeding  after  work,  60,  178. 
Carob  bean,  166. 
Carrots  and  turnips,  98,  169. 
Caseine,  30. 
Causes  of  cutting  and  brushing,  213. 

,,          disease,  and  its  prevention,  203. 
Certificates  of  soundness,  123. 
Chaff,  economy  of,  99. 
Changes  in  chyme,  27. 
Change  of  grain,  objections  to,  82. 
Cheap  food,  what  constitutes  a,  81. 
Cheeks,  14. 

Choking,  causes  of,  19. 
Chronic  cough,  one  of  the  causes  of,  22. 
Chyle,  24. 
Chyme,  27. 

„       changes  in,  27. 
Cleanliness,  104,  134. 
Clipping  and  singeing,  152. 
Clothing,  150. 
Coal  mines,  feeding  in,  2,  79,  85. 

,,  neglect  of  horses  and  ponies  in,  77,  105. 

„  shoeing  in,  220. 

Colon,  25. 

Colliery  estates,  systems  of  feeding  adopted  upon,  74,  76,  79  85. 
Condiments,  103,  167. 
Condition,  185. 

,,         physic  not  always  required  for,  186. 


Index.  229 


Consequences  of  an  imperfect  system  of  feeding  in  coal  mines, 

2,  75,  76. 
Cooked  food,  18,  42,  101. 

,,  does  not  render  food  more  digestible  or  nutritious,  41. 

„  diseases  arising  from,  45,  101. 

,,  is  expensive,  44. 

,,  injurious  effects  of,  18,  45,  101. 

,,  not  economical,  55. 

Corn,  mixture  of,  89. 
Cost  of  feeding  horses  in  Sheffield,  72. 

,,         ,,  ,,       upon  oats,  65. 

Cough,  chronic,  how  caused,  22. 
Cree'd  linseed,  164. 

Cubic  space  required  by  each  animal,  196. 
Currycomb,  143. 
Cut  food  promotes  salivation,  75. 

,,      ,,     use  of,  160. 
Cutting  and  brushing,  213. 


DANDT-brush,  144. 

Danger  of  gas-brackets  in  stables,  131. 

, ,          the  indiscriminate  use  of  drugs,  1 33,  206. 
Dealers,  tricks  of,  111. 
Declivity  of  stable  floors,  198. 
Defects  of  horses,  119. 
Deglutition,  17,  19. 
Development  and  maintenance,  8. 
Diabetes,  13,  42. 
Digestion,  organs  of,  14,  108. 

,,  should  be  in  a  healthy  condition,  60. 

acids  of,  29. 
in  stomach,  22. 
in  intestines,  27. 
rapid  in  horse,  22,  56. 
Digestive  process,  26. 
Diseases  arising  from  cooked  food,  45,  101. 

induced  by  the  use  of  impure  bran,  162. 
causes  and  prevention  of,  203. 
produced  by  badly  arranged  stables,  195. 
Disinfectants,  135. 
Disposal  of  manure,  151. 

Do  horses  masticate  the  whole  of  their  grain  ?  56,  60. 
Doors,  sliding,  201. 
Drain  or  stench  traps,  198. 
Drains  in  stables,  197. 
Dressing  or  grooming,  104,  143. 
Dry  food,  objections  to,  54. 


230  Index. 


Dung  or  faeces,  29. 
Duodenum,  24. 
Dyeing,  115. 

EAELY  operations  in  the  stable,  128. 
Economy  of  food,  71,  176. 

„        of  using  chaff  and  bruised  corn,  99*. 
Effects  of  badly  arranged  stables,  195. 
Effete  or  useless  matter,  11,  29. 
Efficiency  of  gas  lights  in  ventilation,  141. 
Elementary  principles  of  food,  28. 
Ernes,  Wm.,  Esq.,  M.R.C.V.S.,  his  experience  on  the  exclusire 

use  of  bran,  162. 
Errors  to  be  avoided,  40,  96. 
Essential  characters  of  food,  29. 

,,       qualities  of  oats,  65. 

,,  ,,  other  corn,  &c.  156. 

Evil  effects  of  insufficient  food  for  young  animals,  12. 
Exercise,  181. 

„       importance  of,  for  hard-working  horses,  183. 
Experiments  of  Boussingault  and  Papin,  60. 
Extracting  temporary  teeth,  custom  of,  in  Ireland,  114. 
Eyes,  disease  of,  119. 

FALLACIOUS  ideas  as  to  the  passage  of  unchanged  grain,  54, 58,  60. 
Fat  or  heat  producers,  28,  32. 
Feeding,  156. 

after  work,  23,  178. 
economy  of,  55,  74,  80,  176. 
manger  system  of,  55. 
regular,  23,  46,  50,  175. 
saving  effected  in,  by  Mr.  Hunting,  74. 
saving  effected  by  Mr.  Scott  at  Hetton  Colliery,  80. 
system  of,  at  the  Londonderry  Collieries,  85. 
,  „         at  the  Hetton  Colliery,  76. 

Feet  of  horses,  their  shoeing  and  management,  208. 

„  ,,         stopping  of,  212. 

Fibrine,  30,  31. 
Flesh  formers,  28. 
Floors,  wooden,  199. 

,,      declivity  of,  198. 
Fl  uids,  passage  of, 23. 
Faeces  ur  dung,  29. 
Food,  advantages  of  good,  12,  42,  46. 
„      economy  of,  71,  176. 
„       elementary  principles  of,  28,  29. 
essential  characters  of,  29. 


Index.  231 


Food,  green,  97,  169. 

,,      immediate  object  of,  8. 

indigestible  parts  of,  29. 

insufficient,  effects  of,  on  young  animals,  12. 

relative  proportions  of  nutritious  and  starchy  matter  in,  63. 

requires  bulk  or  volume,  39. 

steamed,  objectionable,  87. 

varieties  of,  63,  156. 

when  cooked  expensive,  innutritious,  and  not  economical, 

18,  42,  55,  101. 
Foot  ointments,  212. 

„     pickers,  145. 

Foreman,  Thos.,  M.E.C.V.S.,  collects  specimens  of  calculi,  54. 
Forms  of  mixture  of  grain,  89. 
Frog,  the,  210. 

GAS-brackets  in  stables,  danger  of,  131. 

„    lights,  their  efficacy,  in  ventilation,  141. 
Gastric  j  uice,  26. 

„       digestion,  26. 
General  arrangement  of  stables,  194. 
Glanders  or  blaunders,  112. 
Gluten,  30,  31. 
Grain,  economy  in  storing,  68. 

,,     objections  to  a  change  of,  62. 

,,      selection  and  purchase  of,  68,  156. 

,,      does  it  pass  unacted  upon  ?  57,  58,  60. 
Grass,  turning  horses  to,  171. 
Green  Food,  97,  169. 
Grinders,  15. 
Groggy  feet,  215. 
Grooming,  104,  143. 
Gruel  after  work,  178. 
Gullet,  15. 
Gypping,  315. 

HAED  work,  care  required  in  feeding  horses  after,  23,  60,  178. 
Hay  and  straw,  99,  101,  160. 

,,    tea  after  work,  179. 
Health,  what  is  it  ?  204. 

Healthy  condition  of  digestive  organs  necessary,  60. 
Heat,  animal,  32. 

„      producers,  28,  32. 

,,  ,,          relative  proportion  of,  in  food,  63. 

„      or  temperature  of  stable,  141. 
Heavy  draught  horses  objectionable,  49. 
Hetton  Colliery  system  of  feeding,  76. 


232  Index. 


Horse,  digestive  organs  of,  not  intended  for  cooked  or  sloppy 

food,  41. 
Horse  dealing,  bribery  in,  120. 

„       shoeing  in  coal  mines,  220. 
Horses,  defects  in,  119. 
„       recommending,  124. 
„       feet  should  be  dry,  212. 
,,       their  selection  and  purchase,  111. 
Hoof,  the,  208. 

Hours  of  work  of  pit  animals,  77. 
How  to  prevent  cutting  and  brushing,  214. 
Hunting,  C.,  M.R.  C.V.S.,  his  determination  of  the  proportion  of 

husk  in  oats,  67. 
,,  ,,         his    saving  in   the   feeding  at   South 

Hetton,  74. 

Husk  in  oats,  proportion  of,  in  different  varieties  of,  67. 
Hybernating  animals,  35. 

IDENTITY  of  nitrogenous  compounds  from  all  sources,  31. 
Ilium,  24. 

Ill  effects  of  maize,  70. 

Importance  of  exercise  for  hard-working  horses,  183. 
,,          of  grooming,  104,  143. 
,,          of  prevention,  4,  46,  203. 
Impure  bran,  a  cause  of  disease,  162. 
Immediate  objects  of  food,  8. 
Incisor  teeth,  14. 

„         ,,       practice  of  extracting,  114. 
Indian  corn,  70,  166. 
Indigestible  parts  of  food,  29. 
Inflating  the  skin,  or  "  puffing  the  glym,"  114. 
Insalivation,  16. 

Insufficient  food,  evil  consequences  of,  in  young  animals,  12. 
Intestines,  stones  or  calculi  in,  51,  162. 

„          their  capacity  and  division,  26. 
Injurious  effects  of  cooked  food,  18,  45,  87,  101. 

,,  ,,  insufficient  food  in  young  animals,  12. 

Ireland,  mode  of  selling  horses  in,  124. 

JEJUNUM,  24. 
Jibber,  the,  119. 

KiDNEY-dropper,  116. 
Kohl-rabi,  169. 

LACTEALS,  or  absorbents.  24. 

Lameness,  foot  should  always  be  examined  in,  219. 


Index.  233 


Lameness  in  horses,  how  disguised,  113. 

Large  intestines,  25. 

Large  number  of  horses,  importance  of  a  superintendent  for,  61. 

Laxative,  bran  as  a,  84,  161,  162. 

Leather  soles,  211. 

„        valves  used  in  ventilation,  140. 
Legs,  washing  the,  147. 
Leguminous  seeds  require  bruising,  99,  175. 
Lentils,  159. 

Level  floors,  necessity  for,  199. 
Lighting  of  stables,  136. 
Linseed,  71,  163. 

„         or  oil  cake,  165. 

,,  „          value  of,  for  young  stock,  166. 

,,         oil  as  an  improver  of  condition,  164. 

tea,  164. 

Locust  or  carob-bean,  166. 

Londonderry  Collieries,  system  of  feeding  adopted  at,  85. 
Long  fasts  prejudicial,  23,  78. 
Longevity  promoted  by  good  food,  40. 
Loose  boxes,  201. 

McDouGALL's  disinfecting  powder,  135,  161. 

Maintenance,  10. 

Maize  or  Indian  corn,  70,  166. 

Management  of  horses'  feet,  208. 

Mane  comb,  144. 

Manger  system,  55. 

Mangold  wurtzel,  169. 

Manure,  disposal  of,  41. 

Mashes  of  bran,  162. 

Mastication,  15. 

Materials  for  stable  floors,  197. 

Medicines,  danger  of  their  indiscriminate  use,  206. 

Mesenteric  glands,  28. 

Metamorphosis  of  tissue,  10,  11. 

Mismanagement,  1. 

Mixtures  of  corn  or  grain  for  horses,  89. 

Moisture,  injurious  effects  of,  on  horses'  feet,  212. 

Molar  teeth  or  grinders,  15. 

Mortality  from  mismanagement,  5,  7,  13. 

,,          saved  by  Mr.  Hunting's  system,  75. 

,,  ,,         ,,     Scott's  ditto,  81. 

NAILS  in  shoeing,  21 0. 

Nature,  uses,  and  abuses  of  bran,  83,  161,  162. 

Neglect  of  grooming  pit  animals,  105. 


Index. 


Nitrogenous  compounds,  their  identity  from  all  sources,  30. 

,,  principles  of  food,  30,  63,  156. 

Non- nitrogenous  principles  of  food,  32. 

,,  „       relative  proportion  of,  in  different  kinda 

of  food,  63,  156. 
Nose- bags,  131. 

OATS,  64,  156. 

cost  of  feeding  upon,  65. 

do  not  always  require  bruising,  157. 

essential  qualities  of,  65. 

proportion  of  husk  in,  67. 

quantity  to  be  used,  157. 

straw,  99. 
Objections  to  a  change  of  grain,  83. 
„          to  green  food,  97,  170. 
„          to  the  use  of  dry  food,  54. 
CEsophagus,  15. 
Oil-cake,  165. 

,,     „     value  of,  for  young  stock,  166. 
Ointment  for  feet,  212. 
Organs  of  digestion,  14,  108. 
Origin  of  calculi,  52,  162. 

PATENT  baked  food,  104. 
Paving  of  stable  floors,  196. 
Pea  and  bean  straw,  101. 
Peas,  159. 

,,     and  beans  should  be  bruised,  175 
Pharynx,  15. 
Pit  animals  are  much  neglected,  77,  105. 

„        their  hours  of  work,  77. 

„    horsekeepers  have  too  many  animals  under  their  care,  105. 
Pluck  or  breeding,  48. 
Precautions  to  be  observed  in  feeding,  23,  46,  50,  95,  167,  170. 

,,  to  be  observed  in  purchasing  horses,  126. 

Prehension,  14. 

Prejudice  against  system  on  colliery  estates,  4,  77,  87,  108. 
Prevention,  importance  of,  4,  46,  205. 
Pricks  and  binds  in  shoeing,  218. 
Process  of  digestion,  26. 
Profuse  staling,  42. 

Proportion  of  husk  in  different  kinds  of  oats,  67. 
Provision  for  maintaining  warmth  in  the  body,  35. 
Ptyalin,  16. 
Puffing  the  glym,  114. 
Pumiced  feet,  217. 


Index.  235 


Purchase  and  selection  of  horses,  111. 

,,  „       precautions  to  be  observed  in, 

126. 

Purity  of  water,  133. 
Putrefaction,  its  effects  upon  drinking  water,  133. 

RAPIDITY  of  digestion,  22. 

Recommending  horses,  124. 

Kectum,  25. 

Regular  feeding,  23,  46,  50,  175. 

Relative  proportion  of    heat  producers  in   different  kinds    of 

food,  63. 
,,  ,,  nutritious  matter  in   different  kinds   of 

food,  31,  63. 
Ring-bones,  216. 
Roaring  or  "  bellans,"  112. 
Roots,  98,  169. 
Rubber,  the,  144. 
Rules,  simple,  for  shoeing,  208. 

SACCHARINE  principles  of  food,  17,  28,  32,  63. 
Saliva,  16. 

„      is  secreted  abundantly,  17. 

„      chemical  action  of,  17. 

„      flow  of,  promoted  by  cut  and  dry  food,  75,  99. 

„      cannot  be  replaced  by  any  artificial  agent,  18. 

,,      quantity  of,  an  important  agent  in  digestion,  17,  99. 

,,      solvent  action  of,  16. 

,,      general  uses  of,  17,  18. 
Saving  effected  by  Mr.  C.  Hunting,  74. 

,,  „      by  systematic  feeding,  102. 

,,  ,,      by  Mr.  L.  Scott,  79. 

Selection  and  purchase  of  grain,  68. 

,,  ,,  horses,  111. 

Sending  for  the  veterinary  surgeon,  224. 
Sheffield,  cost  of  feeding  horses  in,  72. 
Shiverer,  the,  116. 

Shoe,  necessity  for  its  removal  in  all  cases  of  lameness,  219. 
Shoeing,  pricks  and  binds  in,  218. 
Shoes,  their  shape,  211. 
Side-bones,  216. 
Singeing,  152. 
Slid  ing-doors,  201. 
Small  intestines,  24. 
Sole  and  frog,  210. 
Soles,  leather,  211. 
Soundness,  certificates  of,  123. 


236  Index. 


Spicy  foods  or  condiments,  103,  167. 
Stable  management,  128. 
Stable,  early  operations  in,  128. 

„       drains,  197. 

„       floors,  materials  for.  196. 

,,       declivity  of,  198. 

„       paving  of,  196. 

,,       should  be  level,  199. 
Stable-tools,  143. 

„        „       use  of,  146. 
Stables,  arrangement  of,  194. 

,,        lighting  of,  136. 

,,        various  modes  of  ventilating,  137. 
Staling,  profuse,  42. 
Steamed  food  objectionable,  86. 
Stench  traps,  198. 
Stomach  of  horse,  ox,  and  man,  20. 
„  small,  21. 

,,        of  ox  divided  into  four  parts,  20- 
Stones  or  calculi  in  intestines,  51. 

i,  ,,     their  origin,  52,  162. 

Stopping  for  feet,  212. 
Storing  of  grain,  68. 
Straw  as  provender,  99,  101,  160. 
Strength  or  ability  derived  from  food,  48. 

„         not  weight,  required  for  moving  heavy  loads,  49. 
Superintendent,  importance  of  a,  61. 
Swallowing,  17,  19. 
System  of  feeding  in  various  collieries,  75,  85. 

,,  „        saving  to  be  effected  by  a  complete,  102. 

TARES  or  lentils,  71,  159. 
Teeth,  incisor,  14. 

„      molar,  15. 

„       extraction  of,  to  accomplish  fraud,  114. 
Temperature  of  stables,  141. 

,,  „        its  effects  upon  all  new  comers,  142. 

Tissue,  metamorphosis  of,  10,  11. 
Tongue,  14. 
Tricks  of  dealers,  111. 
Turkish  bath,  as  an  aid  to  condition,  187. 

„         ,,      the,  and  washing  horses  after  hunting,  100. 
Turning  to  grass,  173. 
Turnips  and  carrots,  98,  169. 
Tying  up  of  animals,  194. 

UNDIGESTED  food,  29. 

„          grain,  passage  of,  57,  58,  60. 


Index.  237 


Urination,  profuse,  42. 

Use  of  dry  food,  objections  to  the,  54. 

„       stable  tools,  146. 
Useless  or  effete  matters,  11. 
Uses  and  abuses  of  bran,  83,  162. 

„    saccharine  principles  of  food,  17,  28,  32. 

,,    saliva,  17. 

VARIETIES  of  food,  63. 
Various  forms  of  mixing  grain,  89. 
Vegetable  food,  169. 
Ventilation  of  stables,  137. 

„  by  the  use  of  leather  valves,  140. 

,,  various  modes  of,  138. 

Veterinary  surgeon,  sending  for  the,  224. 

WALL,  the,  209. 

Want  of  condition,  effects  of,  13,  97,  21& 

Warranty,  122. 

Washing  horses,  189. 

Washing  the  legs,  147. 

Waste  of  animal  tissues,  10,  11. 

Wasting  of  the  body,  causes  of,  34. 

Water  brushes,  145. 

Water,  purity  of,  133. 

Watering,  132. 

What  constitutes  a  cheap  food,  81. 

Wisp,  the,  144. 

Wooden  floors,  199. 

Work,  feeding  after,  60,  178. 

YOUNO  animals  require  good  food,  12. 


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THERAPEUTICS. 

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THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  CHILDREN  IN  HEALTH  AND  DISEASE. 

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